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COPYRIGHT DEPOSnV 



A SPECIAL STUDY 

OF 

THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION 



BY 

LOUIS B. BLAN, Ph.D. 



TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 40 



PUBLISHED BY 

JSmti^tXB CCnUfgp, (ttnlumbia ImuerBttc 
NEW YORK CITY 

1911 



MvMu^iupil 



V 






Copyright, 1911, by Louis B, Blan 






C^CI.A2<S06G7 



PREFACE 

An attempt is made in this dissertation to measure primarily 
the relative frequency of non-promotion in the grades of the 
public school. The method of approach differs somewhat from 
that pursued in previous studies of the problem of retardation. 
The records of the local beginners or the so-called initial starters 
who have persisted in the present grammar grades were alone 
sought and from them the endeavor has been made to ascertain 
with some exactitude the particular grade or grades in which 
the pupils most frequently tend to be retarded. 

Acknowledgments are due to Professor Edward L. Thorn- 
dike, of Teachers College, Commissioner David Snedden, of 
Massachusetts, and Professor G. D. Strayer, of Teachers Col- 
lege, for the kindly interest manifested and the helpful assist- 
ance tendered by them during the progress of the investigation. 

The author is also indebted to the superintendents, principals, 
and teachers in the five city school systems visited who were 
especially courteous and cheerfully made every effort to assist 
in securing as accurate information as is possible in view of the 
prevailing incompleteness of the individual history or record 
cards. 

Columbia University L.B.B. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter 

I Critical Review of the Important Contributions 

TO THE Study of Retardation . . . . 

II New York City, N. Y. (One District) 1,312 Cases 

III Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 

IV Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases 
V East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 

VI Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases 
VII Summary .... 
Bibliography 



Page 

I 

20 
40 

53 
67 

80 

92 

109 



THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION 

CHAPTER I 

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE IMPORTANT CONTRIBU- 
TIONS TO THE STUDY OF RETARDATION 

The handicap of an inadequate terminology occasions con- 
siderable ambiguity in various fields of educational endeavor. 
The necessity for caution in the use of " biological analogy " in 
one's theory of education has been pointed out by noted edu- 
cational philosophers.^ The analogous application of terms 
prevails quite as much in the specific fields of school study -a 
tendency which here too frequently leads to difficulty. 

The term "retardation" has been borrowed recently from 
physics, and seemingly well adapted, its use has been favored by 
all school-men. In defining its true meaning, however, there has 
arisen some difference of opinion to be explained largely in 
terms of relative emphasis. In one case the rate of progress, 
that is, the length of time it takes the pupil to do one year's 
work, is taken to be the proper criterion in estimating whether 
he is to be adjudged subnormal, normal, or supernormal. On the 
other hand, the age-grade standard is considered by many at 
once the more precise and objective measure of retardation. 

Not unmindful of the fact that children vary greatly physi- 
cally and mentally and hence cannot be measured at all times in 
terms of age-relations, the prevailing method of classification of 
children by grades and ages in all the progressive school systems 
of this country must be acknowledged as being more worth while 
in that it affords a better, if not the only, objective means of de- 
termining the number of backward children in our schools. The 
contention that retardation is not to b^ gleaned from the age- 
o-rade table but is to be estimated in terms of the pupil's rate of 

1 Harris, W. T., The Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reason- 
ing on Eciucational Subjects. Proceedings N. E. A., 1902:215. 



2 A special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

speed through the grades irrespective of his age at entrance or 
thereafter, cannot be justified. 

It has been charged by the advocates of the progress-standard 
that the measure of retardation in terms of a modal age group 
is unfair. Superintendent Greenwood, of Kansas City, rather 
dogmatically insists that "retardation is not a question of age 
without respect to progress, but it is one of time required to do 
a given amount of work within a specified time without regard 
to age." Those who voice this latter opinion do so, it would 
seem, more out of fear than otherwise. Since the serious import 
of retardation as a vital educational problem has awakened the 
school authorities throughout the land to investigate along these 
lines, some of the usual conservatives have striven to prove 
the alarm an exaggeration. They argue that it is sensible and in- 
telligent for the parents to send their children to school at a 
late age for where such children do enter the first grade, say, 
at eight years of age or over, they soon make up for lost time 
by "skipping" classes. How, then, they ask, is it possible to 
gauge retardation on the basis of a hypothetical normal age for 
grade. 

If it were definitely established that it is of little consequence 
when a child enters school because of this proved tendency to 
" skip," the progress-standard for measuring retardation certainly 
would hold good, but only for the lower grades, for, by the time 
the " over-age " entrance pupil reached the higher grades, he 
would be one of the normal age group himself. There is, how- 
ever, little evidence other than mere opinion to prove this 
tendency. No adequate attempts have been made to study this 
important problem. Such studies on record which treat of the 
extent of " skipping " in our graded city schools tend to show 
the presence of a small percentage of these rapidly progressing 
pupils. How many of the " over-age " initial starters are in- 
cluded therein no one is in a position to say. 

In a recent article published in the Educational Reviezu,^ Mr. 
R. P. Falkner cites from the reports of several large and 
small cities such statistics as he and other investigators could 
find which bore on the subject or revealed the amount of ex- 
ceptionally rapid movement of some of the pupils through the 

^ Falkner, R. P., Retardation, its Significance and its Requirements, 
Educa. R. 1909. 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 3 

grades. In Somerville, Mass., 1907, the amount of rapid pro- 
gress, i.e., the promotions over more than one grade plus the 
promotions during the year, amounted to 1.4 per cent of all 
the promotions. In Springfield, Ohio, where 4755 promotions 
were recorded only seven of these or not quite 0.15 per cent 
represented the number promoted more than one grade at the 
end or during the yearly term. In New York City, Mr. L. P. 
Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, studied the records of 
946 fifth grade pupils and found that 5.4 per cent of these 
achieved their work in less than the regularly allotted time. 
In one of the Philadelphia school reports, Mr. Falkner found 
that 2,406 pupils out of 122,644 or less than 2 per cent were 
thus described as incidental. 

Keeping in mind, then, these small percentages of rapidly ad- 
vancing pupils, it would at least seem an unwise chance for the 
pupil to enter the first grade at a late age and depend upon his 
ability solely as a result of his initial "over-ageness'' to "skip" 
grades and make up the handicap of a year or more which he 
concedes his schoolmates at the very start. 

Much of the dissension is attributable to the arbitrary fixing 
of a normal age for grade. The considerable diversity of opinion 
manifest demonstrates plainly the futility of defining the nor- 
mal child. In some cities the so-called " theoretical age-limit " 
for a pupil entering the first grade is five years. ^ Others hold that 
a child should enter the first year of school before his seventh 
birthday and then if he advances regularly, he will have accom- 
plished the eight years' course before he is fifteen years of age. 
Professor L. Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, regis- 
tered the opinion, ^ when Dr. Bryan made his investigation in 
Camden, N. J., (1904-06) and found 72 per cent above this lat- 
ter age-limit (6 years o months to 6 years 11 months inclusive 
for entrance to first grade, etc.) that only those be counted as 
retarded who exceeded this age-limit by one year or more. This 
lowered the percentages as follows : 47 per cent, one year or 
more over the age-limit; 26 per cent, two years or more; 13 per 
cent, three years or more ; and 5 per cent, four years or more. 
Duly considering then these alarming retardation figures, Pro- 

1 In Medford, Mass., the superintendent regards five years as the proper 
age-standard for entrance to the first grade. 

2 Witmer, L., What is meant by Retardation? Psy. Clinic. Oct. 1910. 



4 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

fessor Witmer tells us that it was deemed advisable to call all 
those pupils " pedagogically retarded " who exceeded the age- 
limit by two years or more and that investigators of statis- 
tics of age distribution have generally accepted this as the age- 
standard in their studies of the problem of retardation in other 
cities. 

In order to properly analyze conditions in any city, statistical 
comparisons with other cities become imperative. Only within 
recent years the statistics of retardation have been published. 
At present they occupy a vitally important place in the annual 
and special reports of every efificient superintendent. Statisti- 
cians are wont to build up tables showing the relative amounts 
of retardation prevalent in various systems on the basis of the 
published percentages of "over-ageness" recorded in the respec- 
tive school reports. While due precaution at times is taken to 
observe that in each system the same normal age-standard is 
assumed, nevertheless these comparisons when made simply on 
this basis are commonly misleading. So long as full age-grade 
tables are shown recording accurately the distribution of all pu- 
pils according to age, e.g., in first grade, so many 5 years o 
months to 5 years 11 months inclusive; so many 6 years o 
months to 6 years 11 months inclusive; etc., it matters little 
what specific theoretical age-limit is taken. The complete dis- 
tributory tables furnish the only true means of comparing con- 
ditions in the schools of any given city or of city with city. 
The variance in interpreting just what 5 years as a normal en- 
trance age, or 6 years, etc., really means is a real cause for many 
fallacious comparisons. Some understand 5 years of age to 
mean anywhere between 4^ and 5j4 years ; others regard it as 

5 years o months to 5 years 11 months inclusive, etc. It is 
plain then that great care ought to be exercised in this matter of 
explaining the true signification of each age-heading in all age- 
grade tables. 

Professor Witmer in the aforementioned article outlines in 
brief the history of the growth of the study of retardation in 
our schools. He asserts that the mind of the school authority 
was first aroused to notice the prevailing conditions of retarda- 
tion among school children in the ye&r 1895. In part this 
awakening is attributed to the introduction of medical inspection 
and to the resulting valuable medical reports tabulating the vari- 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 5 

ous defects of the pupils examined. Since then the Hterature of 
retardation has grown to vast proportions. Aluch that has been 
written is definite in the way of contribution towards the under- 
standing of this serious problem of school management. In 
considering critically some of the publications of the leading 
students of retardation, the quantitative aspect of each of these 
studies will be treated as the fundamental concern of this dis- 
sertation. Discussions treating of the causes, and suggestions 
as to remedies will be omitted. 

A large majority of the valuable studies of the retardation 
have appeared in the pages of the Psychological Clinic, a peri- 
odical in issue since March, 1907, edited by Professor L. Wit- 
mer, of the University of Pennsylvania. In the February num- 
ber of this psychological journal. District Superintendent O. P. 
Cornman, of Philadelphia, collated statistics showing the amount 
of retardation in five selected city school systems. In the main 
his system of statistical tabulation demonstrated conclusively the 
value of the age-grade table as a standard for measuring the 
extent of retardation in any school and as a means for comparing 
the same in the school systems of various cities. Philadelphia, 
Boston, New York City, Camden, and Kansas City were selected 
for study. 

Assuming 7 years to 7 years 11 months inclusive as the nor- 
mal age for entrance to the first grade, Superintendent Cornman 
found the range of "over-ageness" to be from 51 per cent in 
Boston to 77.6 per cent in Kansas City. ^ From Table Yl sum- 
marizing the percentages of enrollment above normal age, one 
notes in all five cities a progressive increase of retardation till the 
fifth grade and then a gradual falling off in the sixth and 
seventh grades and a marked drop in the eighth grade. This 
is especially so in Camden and in New York City. Superintend- 
ent Cornman quite correctly accounts for this on the assumption 
that the older children in the later grades drop out of school to 
go to work. Some students of retardation observing similar con- 
ditions have made the serious error of concluding that the larger 
retardation per cents in the lower grades proved that the earlier 
grades were unquestionably more difficult than the later ones. 
Mr. L. P. Ayres, in his investigation of the records of 20,000 
New York City school pupils, is the chief ofifender in this re- 

^ Psychological Clinic. Feb. 1908: Tables I to V. 



6 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

spect. He assumes the frequency of repetition in the upper 
grades, beginning with the sixth, is absolutely nothing and bases 
his estimates of retardation on this false assumption.^ 

Superintendent Cornman's study shows, then, by means of 
clear systematic age-distribution tables the great diversity of 
ages of the pupils in their respective grades and emphasizes 
the value of the age-grade table as unmistakable proof of the 
fact of retardation. That his admirable work had a considerable 
effect in decreasing the number of retarded pupils may at least be 
presumed on comparing such statistical information cited in his 
reports of June, 1907 and June, 1908. Whereas in the earlier year 
he found 12.7 per cent as being 20 or more months in one grade, 
in the next year there were only 6.6 per cent so retarded. It is 
highly probable that the marked reduction in the amount of re- 
tardation was due in large part to the mere fact that attention was 
called to the prevailing conditions. 

In the Psychological Clinic issued during the month of May, 
1908, Dr. R. P. Falkner, former Commissioner of Education 
for Porto Rico, endeavored to show some further possibilities 
of interpretation of the valuable statistical material gathered by 
Superintendent Cornman in the same five city school systems. 
This article is largely a special critique of method and chal- 
lenges many of Superintendent Cornman's contentions. Dr. 
Falkner points out the significant fact that the serious effect 
of retardation is the shortening of the amount of education 
measured in time, for the few. For example, the age-grade 
tables of Camden, N. J., show 317 pupils in the third grade 
and eleven years old. In comment Dr. Falkner says that " the 
sad fact is not that they will be 16 years old when they reach 
the eighth grade but that the vast majority will never get there." 
Retardation means then that only the relatively few succeed 
in finishing the entire elementary course. 

The question next under consideration is to determine to just 
what extent Cornman's age-grade tables are comparable. The 
statistical material having- been gathered from annual school 
reports in which the grade distributions represent conditions re- 
ported at different periods throughout the year, some of the 
comparisons are obviously unfair. And in this connection there 
appears a just criticism of the methods of recording statistics 

^ Referred to again more fully on pages 12 and 13. 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 7 

of enrollment as employed in these cities. In Boston, the facts 
are recorded at the end of the year ; in Philadelphia and New 
York City, after the June promotions ; in Camden and Kansas 
City, at various times during the year. Dr. Falkner discusses 
the three methods and declares the Boston system to be the 
best and the simplest. Even so, it is not considered altogether 
satisfactory. He suggests that the faults of this method would 
be obviated by recording enrollment figures on the first of Octo- 
ber, for by that time the regular fall registration is complete 
and the school population has reached its maximum. 

It is generally admitted by school-men and serious research stu- 
dents that the school reports of the majority of our cities furnish 
information of rather doubtful accuracy. Many of them do not 
show the correct age records of the pupils. Whereas accuracy 
is possible since the original records frequently call for age in 
years and date of birth, the teacher in most cases is inclined 
to report age in years alone irrespective of the time when the 
question is asked. The writer was particularly hampered while 
gathering material for the following quantitative study of re- 
tardation, in consequence of this neglect on the part of the 
teacher in the matter of securing the complete age record. It 
became necessary on innumerable occasions to ask the pupils 
individually to write out the exact date of birth, year, month, 
day, as well as the present age in years. 

In addition, then, to this original error of the class teacher, 
mistakes frequently arise as a result of carelessness or even will- 
fulness in copying ofif the figures of the class-room register. 
All these errors of transcription combine to make the final figures 
as reported out by the superintendent misstate the real facts. 
Such discrepancies as do occur when comparing the studies on 
the one hand of those who obtain their records from the class- 
room registers or individual record cards and of those research 
students of the official annual school reports are largely attrib- 
utable to these inaccuracies in transcribing the original entries. 

Noting the age-distribution tables of Superintendent Corn- 
man, attention is called to the tremendous falling off at the age of 
fourteen years. Dr. Falkner commenting on the fact that at 
fourteen only an approximate one-half of those who are in school 
at twelve are still present, concludes that dropping out of school 
is more dependent upon age than upon the stage of grade ad- 



8 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

vancement, — " a fact " which he says is " of cardinal importance 
in the study of retardation." 

The next point of vital consequence is to consider how much 
there is in the prevalent contention that, were the complete sta- 
tistical material at hand, the financial loss to the municipality 
as a result of this so-called damming of the stream of the regu- 
larly advancing pupils, would be surprisingly large. Superin- 
tendent Cornman claims that a child who takes ten years to ac- 
complish an eight year course, costs the city 25 per cent more 
than one who goes through in the regular time. Whereas this 
may be so theoretically, the fundamental fallacy is to assume that 
it is actually thus in practice and to argue from it as a premise, 
the advisability of studying to remedy the evils of retardation. 
The fact must be recognized that innumerable pupils drop out 
of school in consequence of being held back who if regularly 
promoted year after year would perhaps remain throughout the 
entire eight year course and thus cost the city the expense of 
the added year or years of instruction. On the whole Professor 
E. L. Thorndike, of Teachers College Columbia University, esti- 
mates that " of pupils failing of promotion in the last grammar 
grade about one-third are eliminated before the next year's 
enrollment is counted ; of pupils failing in the seventh grade 
about one-fourth ; in the sixth about one-fifth ; in the fifth about 
one-sixth."^ Dr. Falkner in challenging Cornman's notion says 
" that if retardation were wholly eliminated from our schools 
the cost would be increased." He agrees that a wasteful expendi- 
ture of money is a result of retardation, but argues that the 
expenditure is wasteful largely because of its ineffectiveness. 
The money expended although not greater than it ordinarily 
would amount to yields considerably less than it would under 
more favorable conditions. 

One of the most informational contributions to the study of 
retardation was made by Mr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell 
Sage Foundation, who undertook the investigation of 20.000 
pupils in fifteen schools in the Borough of Manhattan, New York 
City. The findings of this investigation were published -in 1909 
in a volume entitled, "Laggards in Our Schools." An endeavor 
is made to learn from the official reports of sixty-three American 

' Thorndike, E. L. Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination. Psy. 
Clinic. Feb. 1910. 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 9 

cities and from the published and vmpubhshed school records in 
New York City something of the conditions and the related 
causes of retardation. Many important phases of the question 
are clearly set forth by Mr. Ayres and definite conclusions sub- 
stantially correct in many cases are set down at the end of each 
chapter, and merit the praise due the investigator who makes 
definite advances toward solving so vital a problem. 

Air. Ayres' results prove beyond any question that the con- 
siderable variance in the relative amounts of retardation recorded 
in many of the city school reports is largely a result of the 
difference in method of obtaining such statistics. Tabulations 
must be made upon a uniform basis in order to be comparable. 
Assuming 6 to 8 years as the normal age for the first grade 
pupil ; 7 to 9 years for the second grade ; 8 to 10 years for 
the third grade; and so on. he finds that Medford, Alass., shows 
the least retardation of the 31 cities and the colored pupils 
in Memphis, Tenn., the most. Taken generally the schools of 
the New England States show comparatively little retardation ; 
the schools of the Eastern and Central States record modal 
percentages of retardation ; the schools of the Southern 
States, especially the colored ones, register the maximum 
tendency. Of course these percentages are to be con- 
sidered merely as approximations as the time when the 
statistics were obtained varies from September, in some cases, 
to June in others. Again this massing of figures quite often 
yields results of a somewhat distorted character. To say for in- 
stance that in the 31 cities on the average 2>Z-7 P^r cent of 
the children are above normal age for their grades means little. 
Far more satisfactory conclusions could be drawn were the age- 
grade tables of at least a few of these cities printed in full so 
that the student could see plainly the nature of the respective dis- 
tributions. Mr. Ayres agrees that the discrepancy between the 
two cities, Medford, Mass., and A/[emphis, Tenn. (colored) 
which two represent the extreme cases, would not be so great 
were the computations made on the same basis. It is question- 
able if he is entirely correct in assuming that even if the data were 
gathered on a truly comparable basis the record of Medford 
would still be the best and that of Memphis, the worst. 

In this connection it is well to remark that only in a few city 
school systems can one obtain the individual record or so-called 



lo A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

history cards dating back more than five years. ^ In Medford, 
Mass., these records are obtainable and the superintendent en- 
forces the age-standard with unusual severity ; five years being 
taken as the normal age for a first grade pupil. In all probability 
this attitude explains in part the excellent showing made by this 
city, only 7.5 per cent of the pupils being classed as above 
normal age. 

As a result of a laborious study of the rates of progress of 
pupils through the grades, Mr. Ayres has quarried out certain 
facts. His data show "that for every pupil making rapid pro- 
gress there are from eight to ten making slow progress and for 
every term gained by the rapid pupils from ten to twelve are 
lost by the slow ones." But Mr. Ayres is not at all careful in 
distinguishing between the retarded pupil and the repeating pupil. 
For example, in his third chapter treating of the factors affect- 
ing grade distribution, Mr. Ayres discusses the factor of retarda- 
tion solely on the basis of percentages of promotion. If, as 
he maintains, the pupils who are "over-age" at the time of en- 
trance to the first grade make the quickest progress and by "skip- 
ping" grades soon catch up to the normal-age pupil, it follows 
that the percentages of repetition and retardation in the early 
grades would show an inverse correlation. In this case, if the 
complete records were obtainable the figures showing repetition 
could be used as a check on those of retardation directly for those 
pupils who are of normal age and indirectly in the case of the 
"over-age" pupils in question. 

Quite often where there is a considerable increase in the num- 
ber of pupils promoted and a corresponding decrease in the num- 
ber left back to repeat the grade one or more times, the percent- 
ages above normal age may show only slight reduction. This 
was the case at the end of the school year 1908 in Philadelphia. 
Superintendent Cornman reported in June, 1907, 37.1 per cent 
as being- above normal age and in June, 1908, 36.8 per cent, a 
difference of only 0.3 per cent in spite of the marked increase 
in percentages of promotion and decrease in percentages of 
" hold-overs. "- 

The writer found it quite impossible to utilize the percentages 
of retardation of the pupils in the eighth grades to check up 

^ In Plainfield, N. J., full history cards are kept, dating back twelve 
years and over. 

^ See first paragraph, pagip '^ 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 1 1 

the percentages of the repeating pupils in these grades. Chart I 
shows the percentages of eighth grade pupils repeating one or 
more times during their entire school life. Chart II represents 
the amount of retardation in per cents of these same pupils who 
ere now in the eighth grade. 



Pc/rc-B'n is. 

qo 

80 




Pe/r-'^e>n^s. 




So 


















lo 






10 

to 

50 
















i>0 












So 
40 














to 
)o 








io 






1 





















C,l/s^ MY. Pa6. 



Ehz 



Ph 



£0. C,i>e.= //Y. Pai. Elu 



Flo 



10 



Chart i. Percentages of 
eighth grade pupils repeating 
one or more times during entire 
school life 



Chart 2. Percentages of re- 
tardation in the eighth grades : 
assuming 13 years to 13 years 
II months inclusive as the nor- 
mal entrance age to the eighth 
grade 



In New York City (one district) whereas 65 per cent of the 
eighth grade pupils repeated one or more times during their en- 
tire school life, 71 per cent of those in this same grade were 
"over-age" for grade, assuming 13 years o months to 13 years 11 
months inclusive as the normal entrance age to the eighth grade ; 
in Paterson 55 per cent of the eighth grade pupils repeated one 
or more times, and 40 per cent were found to be "over-age." 
In Elizabeth and East Orange the contrasts were very marked 
indeed. In the former the writer found only 29 per cent of re- 
peaters as against 62 per cent of retarded pupils, and in the lat- 
ter city, 38 per cent of the repeaters with yy per cent retarded. In 
Plainfield the maximum of repetition was found, 90 per cent, 
and 78 per cent of the eighth grade pupils were above normal 
age for grade. ^ 

The foregoing comparisons prove beyond question that it is 
by no means correct to use the terms repetition and retardation 
interchangeably. Such confusion of terms can only lead to seri- 

^ Explanation of these excessively high percentages is found on page 86. 



12 A special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

ous error especially when the percentages of repetition are mere- 
ly theoretical estimates based on the number of probable be- 
ginners, e.g., Mr. Ayres' method of determining the number of 
repeaters by finding what per cent the pupils in a given grade 
is of the probable number of beginners in the school. 

But, as Professor Thorndike points out, Mr. Ayres' unpar- 
donable error is his assumption that from the sixth grade on, 
the frequency of repetition is zero. His elimination and retarda- 
tion figures being derived on this basis, show up much too high 
for grades one to six and much too low for grades six and over. 

Mr. Ayres in determining the number of repeaters in the 
elementary grades, of a given system takes the "average of the 
generations of the ages seven to twelve in the school membership 
of the system" as the number of probable beginners and uses 
this average as the base in such estimations. A single instance 
will suffice to show how far wrong Mr. Ayres' method may 
lead one in estimating the relative frequency of non-promotion 
in the grades. 

According to this method the assistant superintendent of 
schools, Cleveland, Ohio, reckons the repeaters in the schools of 
his city for 1908-09 would be distributed as follows:^ 

First grade 5,260 pupils repeating 

Second grade 2,216 

Third grade 2,243 " 

Fourth grade i-Si? " 

Fifth grade 823 

Sixth grade o " 

Seventh grade o " 

Eighth grade o " 



Total 12,059 " " 

On actual investigation, however, the true figures were found 
to be thus distributed: 

First grade 3,364 punils repeating 

Second grade 1,274 

Third grade 1,235 

Fourth grade 1,086 

Fifth grade 797 

Sixth grade 474 

Seventh grade 320 

Eighth grade 103 



Total 8,653 

' Educational Review. June, 19 10. 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 13 

N-ote, then, whereas Mr. Ayres figures that 20.2 per cent on 
the total registration repeated grades in the Cleveland schools 
during the school year, in reality the percentage of repeaters is 
only 14.5 per cent. His method shows an excess of 56.4 per cent 
on the actual number of repeaters in the first grade ; 73.9 per cent 
more in the second; 81.6 i)er cent more in the third; 39.7 per 
cent more in the fourth ; 2)-2) per cent more in the fifth ; and to- 
tally neglects the number of repeaters in the sixth, seventh, and 
eighth grades. 

In the Educational Reznciv, February, 1910, Professor E. L. 
Thorndike, of Teachers College, reviewed Mr. Ayres' book, 
pointing out its many valuable features. Compliment is paid 
the author for his having avoided certain common errors, 
e.g., the neglect of the inverse correlation of physical defects 
with age and the effect of the school entrance age upon the 
rate of progress therein. Many important relations, however, 
which could have been determined from the individual records 
of the New York City pupils are mentioned by the reviewer and 
the author is severely criticised for such omission. For example, 
Mr. Ayres says nothing concerning the typical rate of progress 
and the variations from this rate for, say lA pupils, at the age 
of six, seven, etc. He neglects to ascertain the correlations be- 
tween failure of promotion in a given grade and failure of pro- 
motion in subsequent grades ; between failure of promotion in two 
or more grades and retention in other grades, e.g., comparing the 
sixth and seventh grades with the fourth and fifth grades with 
respect to the extent of non-promotion in the third grade. This 
sort of comparative grade study is well worth while, the result- 
ing correlations being integral in measuring the underlying causes 
of failure. 

The only serious attempt to gauge the comparative lengths of 
the different grades of the elementary school is found in a criti- 
cal study made by Professor Thorndike and published in the 
January and February numbers, 1910, of the Psychological Clinic, 
under the caption, " Promotion, Retardation and Elimination." 

Professor Thorndike carefully examined the school reports of 
over one hundred cities and towns and from the statements of 
the number of promotions by grades recorded therein, he has 
ascertained with a reasonable amount of accuracy the relative 
lengths of the various grades of city school systems in general. 



14 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

Actual percentages of pupils who fail based on the grade enroll- 
ment at the end of the year are found and in order that the in- 
vestigator may conveniently elicit from these figures the extent 
to which the grades are of unequal length, the ratios of these per- 
centages to the average for grades two to eight are computed. 
It was advisable to use as the base grades two to eight rather 
than one to eight on account of the considerable variability 
among cities in the proportion of failures in the first grade. 

Tables II and IV in Professor Thorndike's study show the dis- 
tribution of non-promotion in grades two to eight. Table II 
reports on fifteen cities of which thirteen have complete data. 
Table IV records thirteen other cities treated in Mr. Ayres' in- 
vestigation. Selecting from these two tables the cities with com- 
plete data and only those having eight yearly systems, the follow- 
ing two groups may be formed wherein similar tendencies prevail : 



GROUP A 

Proportion which the Percentage of Pupils enrolled at the End of 
the Year who fail of Promotion, is of the Average of such Percen- 
tages for Grade 2 to the last Grammar Grade, inclusive, in the 
City in Question. 



Grades 
Manhattan, N. Y, 

Chester, Pa 

Providence, R. I. , 
Wilkesbarre, Pa . . 

Elgin, Ind 

Pasadena, Cal. . . . 
Jamestown, Va. . 



.48 
■93 
•99 
•45 
.41 

•25 
.64 



•49 
•50 
.61 

•59 
.70 
.01 



98 

85 
78 
40 

99 
00 
68 



.09 

•93 
.21 

•71 
.00 
.88 
.82 



•99 

•38 
•35 
. II 

•05 
•93 
.61 



I .09 
I .09 
I .49 
I .41 

1^15 
I .03 

•97 



1 .09 
1 .62 

.85 

2 .22 
1.36 

1-35 
2 .00 



Grades 

Brooklyn, N. Y. . 
Fort Wayne, Ind 
Columbus, O. . . . 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Chicago, 111 

Wheeling, W. Va 
Springfield, O . . . 
San Francisco, Cal 
Cincinnati, O. . . . 



^•52 
2 .13 
2.17 

1 .24 
2.25 

2 .08 
I .40 

.89 
1 .82 



GROUP B 

(Same) 



.91 

.87 

•59 
I .07 

I ^13 
1.25 
1. 18 
I .09 
I .20 



3 

.96 

•94 

•93 

I .02 

•94 
i^i3 
I .32 
I .24 
I .20 



•995 
1.05 
I .20 
.96 
.88 
I .46 
1. 18 
1. 16 
I .20 



5 

.105 

.22 

.09 

.19 

•13 
.42 

•03 
.16 

•94 



I .14 
.84 

I .0=; 
.96 

1 .06 
•54 

1.25 

I .09 



7 

1 .215 

1 .08 

1 . 12 

.90 

1 .00 

.88 

.81 

.81 



Of the sixteen cities recorded above, the seven in Group A 
show the average length of the first four grades to be less than 
the average length of the last four grades ; and the nine in Group 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 



15 



B .show the reverse. The larger number in the second group is 
easily explained. The average weights all grades equally and as 
the first grade in nearly all cases is exceptionally long and the last 
grade in many cases rather short, several of these cities should 
not properly be classed in this group. The comparison would be 
far truer were these extreme grades eliminated. Thus comparing 
the averages of the lengths of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, 
one is enabled to get a more correct estimate of the relative 
lengths of the lower and upper grades of the city school systems 
in question. Groups A^ and B^ show then more accurately in 
average per cents how the three lower grades compare in length 
with the three higher grades. 



GROUP Ai 

Average of Proportions which the Percentage of Pupils enrolled at the 
End of the Year who fail of Promotion in Grades 2, 3, and 4 as 
compared with such Averages in Grades 5, 6, and 7 is of the same 
Base: the Average of such Percentages for Grade 2 to last Grammar 
Grade inclusive. 



Manhattan, N. Y. 

Chester, Pa 

Providence, R. I. 
Wilkesbarre, Pa . , 

Elgin, Ind 

Brooklyn, N. Y . . 
Fort Wayne, Ind 
Columbus, O. . . . 

Chicago, 111 

Pasadena, Cal. . . 



Grades 2, 3, and 



and 4 


5, 6, and 7 


92 


I .06 


66 


1-13 


•71 


1 .02 


•50 


1.08 


.78 


I .07 


.96 


i-iS 


•95 


I. OS 


.91 


1 .09 


.98 


1 .06 


•94 


•95 



Wheeling, W. Va . . 

Springfield, O 

San Francisco, Cal. 

Cincinnati, O 

Jamestown, Va. . . . 



GROUP Bi 

(Same) 
Grades 2, 3, and 4 5, 6, and 7 



Of equal average length in : 
Philadelphia, Pa 



I .23 

I .16 

I .20 

.87 



•95 

I .03 

I .02 

.90 

.80 



If the lengths of the grades may be taken as criteria of the 
relative difficulty of these grades the upper grades are unquestion- 
ably more difficult than the lower. From the statistics of the 
entire fifteen cities gathered by Professor Thorndike, the central 



i6 A Special SUidy of the Incidence of Retardation 

tendencies in the records of non-promotion figured as percent- 
ages of the June enrollment are as follows •} 

Grades 234567 8 

Medians 12.25 14.00 14.75 16.00 14.25 15.00 12.50 

Combining the records of these cities with those found in Mr. 
Ayres' report: 

Grades i 234567 8 

Medians 160 95 94 99.5 109 102 99.5 89 

The progressive increase of non-promotion up to the sixth 
grade is plainly the tendency. The smaller percentages in the 
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades must not be taken to imply 
that these grades are less difficult than the earlier grades. In all 
probability a large number of the failing pupils in the fifth grade 
leave school and go to work and for those that remain, the 
seventh grade would seem to again function as the final selective 
force. Certainly if all the pupils who failed of promotion in the 
fifth grade remained long enough to struggle through the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades, these grades would show very much 
larger percentages of non-promotion. The writer found upon 
careful examination of the individual records of 3,865 grammar 
grade pupils in five city school systems that the grade distribu- 
tion of non-promotion showed plainly a progressive increase of 
non-promotion from the first grade till the eighth grade, the 
seventh grade in all five cities recording the highest percentage 
of retention. The assumption then that very few pupils who 
reach the upper grades fail of promotion and repeat the work of 
the grade is wrong. The facts demonstrate that the retarding 
force in the grammar grades is certainly no less than in the pri- 
mary. 

It is justifiable to assume that the conditions discovered in the 
five cities treated in the present retardation study outline the gen- 
eral tendency. In this connection the reader is referred to Chap- 
ter XIX in the forthcoming 1910 report of the Commissioner of 
Education, written by Professor G. D. Strayer, of Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University. This chapter in so far as it touches 
on retardation is a summary of a statistical study soon to appear 
in a special bulletin issued by the Bureau of Education. It dis- 
cusses the retardation and elimination of pupils as the result of 

^Psychological Clinic, Jan. 1910:240. 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 1 7 

a study of three hundred and nineteen cities of varying size in 
all sections of the United States. The conclusions are based on 
an age-grade census. The normal age is defined as six to eight 
for the first grade, seven to nine for the second, eight to ten for 
the third, and so on. Professor Strayer prefers to take the larg- 
est age group as a measure of the number entering school during 
the year for which the data were secured. He argues the reli- 
ability of this estimate of the entering group as opposed to the 
customary average of the ages seven to twelve. Wherever the 
actual number of beginners could be determined the latter meas- 
ure has proved too small. 

The tables expressing the frequency of retardation of boys and 
girls show the wide variability among cities. The sexes are dis- 
tributed in the following manner : 

Quantity: Per Cent of the Total Frequency: Number of Cities 
Number of Boys 

Boys Girls 

Per Cent No. of Cities Per Cent No. of Cities 

6 2 \ 2 



8 9 

5 ^ 16 10 7 1- 19 

12 9 J 12 3 J 

14 S 1 14 7 1 

16 if-ii 16 11^28 

18 S J 18 10 J 



20 9 I 20 , 

22 S r 22 22 20 }■ 46 

24 



8 I 24 14 J 



26 14 1 26 25 

28 17 [42 28 231-67 



30 19 J 



32 26 1 32 2 

34 17 [ 66 34 18 J- 56 



J 42 9 J 



6 23 J 36 17 J 

38 26 1 38 22 1 

40 i6J-65 40 i8}-49 

42 

44 21 1 44 

46 121-51 46 3 1- 19 

48 18 J 48 6 J 

50 8 ] 50 5 

52 5 (• 18 52 

54 



5 J 54 3 J 



56 3l 56 5 

58 2 ;• II 58 7 i- 13 

60 6 J 60 I J 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Quantity: Per Cent of the Total Frequency: Number of Cities 
Number of Boys 



Boys 



Girls 



Per Cent 
62. . . 
64... 
66. . . 



No. of Cities 



68, 

70. 
72. 

74 



4 

4 \ 9 

I J 

il 
4 \ 6 

I J 



Per Cent 
62. . 
64... 
66. . , 



70. 
72. 

74. 



No. 


of Cities 




n 

3J 


4 




oj 


5 




I ^ 


1 



The mode ranges in the case of the boys from .32 to .42 ; 
whereas for the girls the modal range is from .26 to .36. These 
percentages show plainly that boys in general tend to be more 
retarded than girls. The theoretical age-limit allowing in each 
grade one year on the normal age assumed in the subjoined study 
accounts for the low percentages of retardation as compared with 
those of the five eastern school systems. 

Median percentages indicating the distribution of boys and 
girls retarded i year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years and over, again 
show that the boys are more frequently retarded. The cities are 
classified by population as follows : 



Population 


" Over-Age " Pupils 


Total 
Percent- 
ages 


" Under- 
age " 
Pupils 


One 


year 


Two years 


Three years 


Four years 
and over 


One year 
and more 




Boys 


Girls 


Boys 
10 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


25,000 and 
over (133 
cities) .... 


20 


18 


9 


5 


3 


2 


I 


38 


32 


4 


4 


Less than 
25,000 (186 
cities) .... 


20 


18 


1 1 


8 


4 


3 


2 


I 


38 


36 


4 


S 



Professor Strayer advises the separate sex classification in the 
study of the problem of retardation. He advocates the formation 
of " special classes for the bright, the slow, the backward, and the 
deficient." Special opportunity should be afforded those ^o pro- 
gress in direct proportion to their ability instead of compelling 
the monotonous repetition of the same work over and over again. 

It is significant that even assuming a rather liberal theoretical 
age-limit, in more than two-thirds of the cities considered, over 



Critical Review of the Important Contributions 19 

thirty per cent of the boys are retarded. The excessive retarda- 
tion in the schools of many cities throughout the country de- 
mands scientific consideration. If we would acclaim the principle 
of equal opportunity in our public schools, the relative amount 
of withdrawal, year by year and grade by grade, must be reduced. 
This necessitates primarily a decrease in the percentage of 
retarded pupils and a corresponding increase in the number 
accelerated. 



CHAPTER II 
NEW YORK CITY (One District) 1,312 CASES 

The present chapter concerns the retardation of elementary 
school pupils only, in one school district of New York City.^ 
The study was made during the months of October and Novem- 
ber, 1909 and P'ebruary, 1910. A method of investigation was 
used which enables one to measure the incidence of retardation, 
so as to estimate with some exactitude the amount of it in each 
grade. The cases studied are confined to pupils who began 
school in the kindergarten or the first grade of the school in 
which they now are. 

The district selected is a suburban one. The six schools con- 
sidered range in registry numbers from 400 to 1,500 pupils ap- 
proximately. Such selection was made solely on the basis of 
convenience and of close personal acquaintance with the facul- 
ties of the schools. 

The method employed in studying the 1,312 initial starters in 
this district will serve as the plan of treatment in the subsequent 
chapters devoted to the study of the cases recorded in the other 
four cities. 

The Migration of Pupils 

As a preliminary consideration it is worth while to note the 
following tabulated comparison by grades of the net results of 
the eflfect of the migratory tendency plus the tendency to enter 
the grades beyond the first. 

A rather poor statistical measure, yet interesting in this case, 
is the range in per cent of the effect of the migratory tendency 
in the various sections of a school district. It is seen in Table I 
to be from 22 per cent to 62 per cent, i.e., whereas in School 
F the pupils who are now in the grammar grades and whl^ entered 
the kindergarten or the i A grade represent about one-fifth of 
the present total register in these grades, in School A there are, 

^ This chapter was published as a special article in the Educational 
Review, June, igio. Some changes have been made in the text. Table 
6 has been added and sex distributions are shown. 

20 



New York City {One District) i,ji2 Cases 



21 



subject to the same conditioning factor, more than three times 
as many. The 78 per cent in the one case or the 38 per cent in 
the other would represent the migration from other schools 
plus the number of those who were admitted as absolutely new 
pupils in or beyond the second grade. As a matter of fact the 
number of such absolutely new admissions is unquestionably 

TABLE 1 
Per Cents of Initial Starters ' 



Schools 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


Aver. 


Grades 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


8B 


60 


26 


60 


44 


45 


27 


43-7 


8 A 


57 


34 


45 


30 


50 


6 


37-0 


7B 


62 


32 


46 


38 


36 


17 


38.5 


7 A 


56 


17 


29 


31 


42 


17 


32 .0 


6B 


64 


44 


43 


19 


58 


40 


44.7 


6 A 


51 


46 


7^ 


25 


43 


1 1 


41 .2 


sB 


59 


S3 


71 


24 


49 


17 


45-5 


5 A 


72 


58 


48 


66 


51 


17 


52.0 


4B 


81 


TOO 


56 


4 5 


46 


40 


61.3 


4A 


58 


91 


60 


50 


63 


26 


58.0 


Average 


62 


50 


53 


3 7 


48 


22 


45-3 



' The quotients obtained by dividing the numbers of pupils in each grade, who entered 
the school in which they are at present enrolled in either the lA grade or in the kinder- 
garten, by the present total register of the grade in which they now are, are changed to 
per cents. 

SO small that it is scarcely worth considering. Taken generally 
the net results obtained by subtracting the per cents given from 
100 per cent show quite accurately the migratory tendency pre- 
valent in the district studied. 

Considering the 7 A grades in aggregate one notes that the min- 
imum of 32 per cent, and in all the 4 B grades the maximum of 
61.3 per cent show similarly the wide range in grade distribution 
of those who originally entered the lowest grade of school. Or 
more generally in grades 6 A and up through 8 B, on the average 
60 per cent of the registered pupils have been received mostly 
by transfer from other schools to, or have been admitted as new 



2 2 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

pupils in grades beyond, the i A grade. On the other hand in 
grades 5 B and down through 4 A there is a decrease of 25 per 
cent on that rate, showing 45 per cent as not having entered the 
initial grade of the school in which they now attend. 

The Age-Grade Relations of the 1,312 Initial Starters 
The actual numbers of pupils in the grades of the six schools 
are shown, segregated according to ages, in Table 2. The age 
of each individual is given in years only and represents the en- 
trance age to the present grade. In the last column of Table 2 
the numbers of retarded pupils are changed to per cents. 

TABLE 2 
Six Schools. Age Distribution. Aggregate 1,312 Cases 



Grade 


7 

or 
less 


8 


9 


10 


1 1 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 

or 

more 


Total 


Abov 
mal 

No. 


eNor- 
Age 

Per 
cent 


8B 














28 


27 


19 


7 


2 


83 


55 


66 


3 


8A 












2 


13 


24 


23 


3 




65 


50 


76 


9 


7B 










I 


14 


33 


30 


10 


8 




96 


81 


84 


4 


7A 








I 


4 


18 


ii 


18 


15 


4 


2 


95 


72 


75 


8 


6B 










20 


40 


39 


29 


7 


3 




138 


118 


85 


5 


6A 








2 


45 


41 


30 


17 


9 


I 




145 


98 


67 


6 


5B 






I 


24 


50 


47 


23 


13 


6 






164 


139 


84 


8 


SA 






I 


4.2 


48 


36 


13 


7 


4 


I 




152 


109 


71 


7 


4B 






26 


61 


47 


34 


13 


7 


2 






19c 


164 


86 


3 


4A 


1 


16 


48 


55 


35 


13 


II 


5 








184 


119 


64 


7 


Total 1,312 


Case.'^ 





Assuming 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive as the nor- 
mal entrance age in grade 4 A, had no pupils been delayed in en- 
tering school or held back thereafter in the six schools considered, 
in general it may be said that 66.3 per cent of those in 8 B who 
entered their respective schools in the first grade, are " over-age " ; 
76.9 per cent in 8 A; 84.4 per cent in 7 B, etc., to 64.7 per cent 
in 4 A. Taking 6 years to 6 years 1 1 months inclusive as the nor- 



New York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 



2; 



mal entrance age to grade i A, 7 years to 7 years 1 1 months inclu- 
sive to grade 2 A, 8 years to 8 years 1 1 months inckisive to grade 
3 A, 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive to grade 4 A, etc., 
the writer is following the usual custom. In reality the modal 
entrance age in the schools of the particular district studied, as 
shown hy Table 2, is almost seven years, probably 6 years 10 
months or thereabouts. Percentages of "over-ageness" as stated 
in the last column of Table 2 are therefore too high. Taking 
10 years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the normal age of 
a jiupil entering the fourth grade, these percentages for 8 B 
through 4 A would reduce to t^^.J, 40.0, 50.0, 41. i, 56.5, 39.3, 
54.3, 40.1, 56.8, 34.8, respectively. 

The accompanying graph illustrates in per cents the modes, 
maxima and minima, of retardation by grades in the various 
schools : 



8B 

8A 
7B 
7A 
6B 
6A 

5B 

5A 
4B 
4A 



64 



-80 



62 



i.S 



74 



■85 



75 



80 



I cm 

Chart 3. Scale ^—^^-^ 10 per cent. 



24 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Table 3 shows in full the approximate modes by grades, de- 
viations from these modes and average deviations. 

TABLE 3 

Retardation in Per Cents. Based on Entrance Age to 
Present Grade 



Schools 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


Ap- 
pro X. 
Mode 


Deviations from Mode 


Aver. 
Dev. 


A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


Grades 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


8B 


73 
71 


88 


43 


73 


90 


50 


70 


+ 3 


+ 18 


— 27 


+ 3 


+ 20 


20 


15-2 


8A 


98 


77 


50 


73 


100 


75 


+ 4 


+ 23 


+ 2 


—25 


— 2 


+ 25 


13. S 


7B 


92 


96 


74 


64 


100 


67 


80 


+ 12 


+ 16 


—6 


—16 


+ 20 


— 13 


13.8 


7A 


77 


67 


80 


100 


69 


40 


70 


+ 7 


— 3 


+ 10 


+ 30 


— I 


— 3C 


13.5 


6B 


86 


97 


81 


100 


78 


so 


80 


+ 6 


+ 17 


+ 1 


+ 20 


— 2 


—30 


12.7 


6A 


66 


68 


62 


75 


74 


100 


7 5 


— 9 


—7 


— 13 





— I 


+ 25 


9.2 


sB 


93 


88 


74 


88 


83 


100 


85 


+ 8 


+ 3 


— II 


+ 3 


— 2 


+ 15 


7.0 


SA 


67 


89 


52 


79 


75 


100 


75 


—8 


+ 14 


—23 


+ 4 





+ 25 


12.3 


4B 


90 


83 


76 


100 


95 


7 5 


85 


+ 5 


— 2 


— 9 


+ 15 


+ 10 


— 10 


8.5 


4A 


66 


80 


54 


45 


70 


40 


60 


+ 6 


+ 20 


—6 


— 15 


+ 10 


2C 


12.8 



The sex distributions of retarded pupils in the grades 4 A 
through 8 B are shown in the following table and comparative 
charts. The plain type in each square numbers the boys graded 
according to entrance age to present class ; the numbers of girls 
are printed in italics in the upper part of these same squares. 

The last column in Table 4 indicates the ratios in per cents of 
the boys above normal age to the total number of boys in their 
respective classes and the figure above in each case indicates 
the ratio in per cent of the "over-age" girls to the total number of 
girls. A statement then such as the following may be made: 
Whereas 65.1 per cent of the total number of male initial start- 
ers now in grade 8 B are above the assumed normal age 13 years 
to 13 years 11 months inclusive, 67.5 per cent of the total number 
of female initial starters now in this same class are thus graded 
" over-age." However, in only three grades, 8 B, 6 A, and 5 B, 
are there larger percentages of retarded girls than boys. Charts 
4 a and 4 b illustrate plainly the tendency in this New York 
City district. The median for the ten grades in the case of the 665 
boys is 79.0 per cent ; and for the 647 girls it is 75.0 per cent. 



New York City {One District) i,ji2 Cases 25 

TABLE 4 

Six Schools. Age-Grade Table Showing Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


7 

or 
less 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 

or 

more 


Total 


Abov 
mal 

No. 


e Nor- 
Age 

Per 

cent 


8B 














15 


12 

15 


10 
9 


3 
4 


2 



40 
43 


27 
28 


67-5 
65.1 


8A 













2 


6 

7 


70 
14 


6 
17 


2 

I 




41 


7,? 

32 


75 -o 

78.0 


7B 








I 


I 


2 
2 


6 


i6 
17 


J4 
16 


3 

7 


5 
3 




47 
49 


J5 
43 


6'o.p 

87.8 


7A 


17 

7 


17 
16 


10 
8 


7 
8 


5 

I 


2 



52 
43 


39 

33 


75 -o 
76.7 


6B 










10 
10 


z6 

24 


21 


^4 
15 


4 

3 


3 





^5 
73 


55 
63 


86.3 


6A 









2 


19 
26 


25 
16 


17 


8 


6 


7 






7f' 

75 


5^ 
47 


72. P 

62 .7 


5B 






I 



7 
17 


26 

24 


26 
21 


77 
12 


5 
8 


3 






7P 

«5 


7-r 

68 


80.0 


5A 








I 


32 
10 


21 
27 


22 
14 


5 
8 


6 

I 


7 

3 



I 




<?7 
65 


55 
54 


(5 J. 2 
83.1 


4B 






18 
8 


30 
31 


20 
27 


^7 
17 


6 

7 


2 

5 


7 
I 






P4 
96 


7^ 
88 


So. 8 
91.7 


4A 




I 


9 

7 


23 
25 


28 

27 


22 


7 
6 


6 

5 


2 








8q 
95 


57 
62 


64.0 
65-3 


Total 


647 
665 


Girls 
Boys 





(Charts 4 a and 4 b referring to Table 4 are found on page 30.) 

It has been suggested that it is unfair to assume that six years 
is the average entrance age of a pupil admitted to the i A grade 
in the schools of this city. Table 5 is a simple statement of the 
ages at entrance to i A grade of the 1,312 children treated in this 
chapter. 

Reading from Table 5, one notes that of the 373 initial start- 
ers in School A, 46 entered grade i A at the age of five or 



26 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



less; 137, at the age of six; 119, at seven; and 71, at eight years 
or more. This means that about one half of these children were 
"over-age" at the time of their entrance to the first grade. 



TABLE 5 

Age Distribution of 1,312 Pupils at Time of Entrance to 
I A Grade 



Schools 


5 

or 
less 


6 


7 


8 

or 
more 


Total 


Above Normal 
Age 




No. 


Percent 


A 


46 


137 


119 


71 


373 


igo 


50-9 


B 


31 


109 


81 


58 


279 


139 


49.8 


C 


34 


162 


90 


34 


320 


124 


38.8 


D 


1 1 


40 


S3 


13 


117 


66 


56-4 


E 


17 


74 


55 


41 


187 


96 


51-3 


F 


10 


12 


9 


5 


36 


14 


38.9 


Total 


149 


534 


407 


222 


1,312 


629 


47-9 



For the six schools, about 48 per cent of the 1,312 pupils 
treated were over six years of age (i.e., 6 years o months to 6 
years 11 months inclusive) w^hen they were admitted to grade 
I A. The large numbers in the seven-year and eight-year 
columns are, perhaps, to be accounted for by the fact that prior 
to October i, 1909 the compulsory attendance age in the schools 
of this city ranged from eight to sixteen. At present the amended 
Compulsory Education Law says, in part, that "every child be- 
tween seven and sixteen years of age, in proper physical and 
mental condition to attend school, shall regularly attend upon in- 
struction during the compulsory school year." 

In order to learn more in detail concerning the age records 
of the 1,312 initial starters as furnished in Table 6, the follow- 
ing table was constructed to show how old these pupils were 
when they entered the i A class, distributed according to pres- 
ent grade. 

The extreme column on the right in Table 6 tells us that 48.2 
per cent of the present 8 B pupils were " over-age " at the time 



New York City {One District) i,ji2 Cases 



27 





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TABLE 
312 Pupils 


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28 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

of their entrance to the i A grade ; 46.2 per cent in 8 A ; 59.4 
per cent in 7 B, etc., to 41.3 per cent in 4 A. In all the grades 
from 4 A to 8 B inclusive, the percentages range from 40.7 to 
59.4. The fourth and sixth grades show minimum percentages 
of initial "over-ageness" ; the fifth and seventh, maximum per- 
centages. Referring to Table 2 one notes that the present per- 
centages of "over-ageness" in the fifth and seventh grades are 
larger than those in the other grades. The natural tendency is 
to conclude that a large proportion of such "over-ageness" is 
the result of original "over-ageness" at the time of school en- 
trance as recorded in Table 6. For example, one is inclined 
to say that out of the 66.3 per cent of "over-age" pupils now in 
8 B, 48.2 per cent were " over-age " at the time of entrance to 
the I A grade. This is by no means correct for the forty pupils 
in the one case do not of necessity refer to the same 40 individ- 
uals out of 55 who are now graded as " over-age " in 8 B. Where- 
as the same groups are referred to, it was found impossible under 
the present circumstances to handle the individual records of 
these pupils so as to afii'ord an explanation of the exact amount 
of present "over-ageness" due to initial "over-ageness." All 
that one is justly entitled to say concerning these percentages 
of pupils above normal age as recorded in Tables 2 and 6 is 
that these percentages in both cases are relatively high. It is 
probable then that a large proportion of these present "over-age" 
pupils were " over-age " at the time of their entrance to the i A 
grade, in so far as there are at present in the 8 B grade only 
83 initial starters of which 40 were above normal age when 
they began school and 55 are "over-age" now. 

Table 7 shows the initial age-grade records of the 1,312 cases 
distributed according to sex, and the appended charts illustrate 
graphically the "over-age" boys at the time of their entrance to 
the I A grade as compared with the " over-age " girls. 

From Table 7, of the boys who remain through the fourth, 
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades about 50 per cent were 
over 6 years 11 months when they entered the lA grade; of 
the girls, about 46 per cent. In this district then the boys re- 
maining in all the grammar grades who entered the first class 
of the school in which they now are, show larger percentages 



New York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 



29 



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12; 


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CM M 




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r^ ro 


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c 
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tv. 






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t^co 


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l^ ir, 

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u 



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30 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



CIh 



< 



< 
u 



1, C3- 



h: -° 













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o 



New York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 31 

of initial "over-ageness" than the girls. At the same time one 
notes in Table 4 that these boys now in the grammar grades tend 
to be more retarded than the girls. In the eighth and seventh 
grades, the median percentage for "over-age" boys (Table 4) 
is 77.4; for "over-age" girls it is 75.0; whereas from Table 7 
the median percentages of initial "over-ageness" of boys and girls 
for these same grades are 58.1 and 44.6 respectively. Other 
things being equal these figures would indicate the probability 
that the selected boys who reach the high grades and are retarded, 
are so more as a result of their initial "over-ageness" than is 
the case with the retarded girls. 

Charts 5 a and 5 b show clearly that in the matter of " over- 
ageness" at the time of school entrance boys are considerably 
more variable per grade than girls. 

The Incidence of Retardation 

The second part of this chapter is devoted to the measurement 
of the relative frequency of non-promotion in the different 
grades. Each pupil was asked to state in what grade or grades 
he had been kept back for a second term. In the event of the 
pupil's inability to remember accurately, a note was made of 
such inability and recourse was had to the record card filed in 
the office of the principal. Such action was necessary in 2)^ out 
of 1,312 cases and the writer was particularly fortunate in ob- 
taining full records of same ; for it was noted that in the majority 
of cases the record cards of the upper grade pupils did not show 
in full their history since their entrance into grade i A. The 
records usually read back only as far as 1904. This explains 
why it became necessary to visit each and every class in grades 
4 A through 8 B in the six schools in order to obtain direct from 
the pupils the information sought. This information was checked 
up by the records when possible. 

In the first place an endeavor was made to ascertain the fre- 
quency of non-promotion of those pupils now in the grammar 
grades including 4 A and 4 B. 

The figures in Table 8 a show how many pupils of the initial 
starters who had reached any given grade from 4 A on, in the 



32 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



six schools, had been "held back" once, twice, three times, etc. 
Converting these figures to per cents for purposes of comparison, 
we have Table 8 b. These figures do some of the pupils an in- 
justice in that no allowance was made in the case of those pupils 
who failed in a given grade but "skipped" a grade either previ- 
ously or thereafter. 

TABLE 8a 
Six Schools. Aggregate 1,312 Cases 



Left Back 


4A 


4B 


SA 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


None 


78 


68 


42 


67 


45 


41 


30 


40 


17 


36 


One 


64 


53 


54 


41 


36 


40 


23 


27 


23 


20 


Two 


25 


35 


36 


38 


42 


39 


26 


24 


17 


21 


Three 


9 


20 


10 


IS 


IS 


13 


8 


5 


7 


2 


Four 


4 


7 


6 


3 


7 


5 


S 





I 


3 


Five or More 


4 


7 


4 











3 








I 


Total Left Back 


106 


122 


no 


97 


100 


97 


6S 


56 


48 


47 


Total Cases 


184 


190 


152 


164 


145 


138 


95 


96 


65 


83 



TABLE 8b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 



Left Back 


4A 


4B 


5 A 


sB 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


None 


42 


36 


28 


41 


31 


3c 


32 


42 


26 


43 


One 


35 


28 


36 


25 


25 


29 


24 


28 


35 


24 


Two 


14 


18 


24 


23 


29 


28 


27 


25 


26 


25 


Three 


5 


1 1 


7 


9 


10 


9 


8 


5 


II 


2 


Four 


2 


4 


4 


2 


5 


4 


5 





2 


4 


Five or More 


2 


4 


3 











3 








I 


Total Left Back 


S8 


65 


74 


59 


69 


70 


67 


58 


74 


56 



Nciv York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 



33 



The opinion has been expressed by many of the teachers and 
principals questioned at the time of the investigation that the 
so-called " average " pnpil, mentally, does reach the 8 B grade but 
is left back at least twice during his or her school life. The 
use of the expression "average" pupil is confusing, to say the 
least. Whether or not those who enter i A and pass through 
8 B in the same school are of average ability, the fact is that 
almost one half of these pupils are never left back at all ; one 
fourth, once ; one fourth, twice ; 2 per cent, three times ; 4 per 
cent, four times ; and i per cent, five times or more. The me- 
dian evidently would be somewhere in the "one-time" group. 

These same data are distributed according to sex in the fol- 
lowing tables. The charts compare eighth grade boys and girls 
with respect to promotion and repetition during their entire 
school life. 

TABLE 9a 

Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During Entire 
School Life 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


4A 


4B 


SA 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


None 


40 


36 

33 


3^ 
1 1 


35 
32 


21 
24 


17 

24 


19 
1 1 


i& 
22 


7 
10 


15 
21 


One 


33 
31 


28 

25 


29 

25 


21 

20 


18 
18 


17 
23 


10 

13 


13 
14 


12 

1 1 


12 

8 


Two 


II 


19 
16 


17 
19 


18 

20 


23 
19 


22 

17 


15 
1 1 


13 
1 1 


4 
13 


II 

10 


Three 


3 
6 


7 
13 


5 

5 


5 
10 


6 
9 


5 
8 


5 


3 
2 


I 
6 


/ 
I 


Four 


3 


4 

3 


4 



3 


2 
5 


4 

I 


2 



c 




I 


2 


Five or More 


3 

I 


I 
6 


I 
3 














I 
2 












I 


Total Left Back 


51 
55 


59 
63 


56 
54 


44 
53 


49 
51 


48 
49 


33 
32 


29 

27 


17 
31 


25 
22 


Total Cases 


89 
95 


94 
96 


S7 
65 


79 
85 


70 

75 


65 
13 


52 
43 


47 
49 


24 
41 


40 
43 



34 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retai'daiion 



TABLE 9b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


4A 


4B 


5A 


sB 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


>J 




per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


None 


42.7 
42.1 


37-2 
34-4 


35-6 
16.9 


44-3 
37-6 


30.0 
32.0 


26.2 
32.9 


36.5 
25.6 


38.3 
46.9 


29.2 

24.4 


37-5 
48.8 


34-4 
36.9 


One 


37-2 
32.6 


29.8 
26.0 


33-3 
38.5 


23-5 


25-7 
24.0 


2<5.2 
31-5 


ip.2 

30.2 


27.7 
28.6 


50.0 
26.8 


30.0 
18.6 


37-5 
22.6 


Two 


12.4 

14.7 


20.2 
16.7 


19.5 
29.2 


22.8 

23-5 


J2.p 

25-3 


23-3 


28.8 
25.6 


27.7 
22.4 


16.7 
31-7 


27-5 
23-3 


27.4 


Three 


3-4 
6.3 


7-4 
13-5 


5-7 
7-7 


II. 8 


12.0 


'7-7 
II. 


p.<5 
7.0 


6.4 
4-1 


4.2 
14.6 


2-5 
2-3 


3-1 

8-3 


Four 


I.I 

3-2 


4-3 
3-1 


4.6 
3-1 


0.0 

3-5 


2.9 
6.7 


6.2 

1-4 


3-8 

7.0 


0.0 

0.0 


0.0 
2.4 


2-5 

4-7 


i.<5 
3-6 


Five or More 


3-4 
I.I 


I.I 
6.3 


I.I 

4.6 


0.0 
0.0 


0.0 
0.0 


0.0 
0.0 


/.p 

4.7 


0.0 
0.0 


0.0 

0.0 


0.0 

2-3 


0.0 
I .2 


Total Left 
Back 


56.2 
57-9 


62.8 
65.6 


64.4 
83.1 


55-7 
62.4 


•/o.o 
68.0 


67.1 


74-4 


61.7 

55-1 


7o.<y 
75-6 


62.5 

51-2 


63.1 



iThese percentages are derived from the 8A and 8B columns of Table ga. Use sum of 
41 + 43 = 84 as base for Boys ; 24 + 40 =64 as base for Girls. 



Chart 6 a. Eighth grade boys. Chart 6 b. Eighth grade girls. 
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- 
ing school life ing school life 

The top row of Table 9 b records, in grades 4 A through 5 B 
as compared with grades 6 A through 8 B, the girls promoted 
in larger numbers than the boys. The larger percentage of regu- 
larly promoted boys then considering only those who reach the 



New York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 35 

highest grades in this school district would indicate that these 
boys are brighter than their girl classmates. On the other hand, 
whereas larger percentages of eighth grade girls left back once 
during their entire school life are recorded, the percentages of 
boys left back twice, three, four, and five or more times by 
far exceed those of the girls. 

Charts 6 a and 6 b again show the boys who are successful 
in their elementary school work to be more variable than the 
girls in the matter of promotion and non-promotion. It would 
seem in this district at any rate that the boys may be properly 
grouped at both extremes of the curve of distribution. They 
as compared with the girls are brighter and more stupid ; the 
girls evidently maintain the average position, assuming of course 
the records of promotion and repetition as criteria. 

Tables 9 a and 9 b throw some light on the question as to 
the extent to wdiich each of the sixteen half-year grades acts 
as a stumbling block for those who survive the entire course 
and each of the fifteen for those who reach 8 A ; and each of the 
fourteen grades for the 7 B pupils, etc., down through all of the 
grammar grades including 4 A and 4 B. 

The facts will be clearer, however, from the two following 
tables. Table 10 a is the statement of the aggregate represent- 
ing the records of 1,312 pupils in the six schools. Table 10 b 
gives the same facts in per cents. 

In cases where a boy or girl was left back once in one grade 
and once in another, records are made in both places, the same 
as if the records of two pupils, each showing one non-promotion, 
were given. If a pupil is left back twice in one grade the record 
counts as a double score in that grade, in the same way as the 
records of two individuals who are left back in that grade would 
count. It is for this reason that Tables 10 a and 10 b do not 
seem at first glance to tally with Tables 8 a and 8 b. In order 
to check up Table 10 a turn to Table 8 a and note the following: 
For example, in 8 B there are 20 left back once which means 20 
records; 21 left back twice, or 42 records; 2 left back three 
times, or 6 records ; 3 left back four times, or 12 records, and 
I left back five times to count as 5 records. The sum of 
20 + 42 + 6+12 + 5, or 85 records, is the same as the sum 
total of non-promotions in grade 8 B, as recorded in the next 
to the last column of Table 10 a. 



36 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



TABLE 10a 
Grade Distribution of Non-Promotion in Aggregate 





8B 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


5B 


sA 


4B 


4A 


3B 


3A 


2B 


2A 


iB 


lA 


Grand Total 


Grades 


No. 
left 
back 


Total pro- 
moted and 
non-prom. 


8B 


7 


5 


8 


II 


9 


7 


7 


5 


3 


4 


4 


5 


2 


4 


2 


2 


85 


121 


8A 




6 


9 


14 


i6 


4 


6 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 





I 





I 


82 


90 


7B 






i8 


9 


7 


12 


8 


6 


4 


4 


3 


6 


I 


4 


2 


6 


90 


130 


7A 








25 


14 


15 


lO 


19 


12 


14 


8 


6 


3 


4 


3 


2 


13s 


165 


6B 










23 


22 


27 


18 


IS 


16 


13 


14 


9 


10 


6 


4 


177 


218 


6A 












24 


24 


27 


19 


20 


25 


14 


13 


13 


3 


II 


193 


238 


sB 














30 


29 


20 


17 


23 


17 


10 


8 


8 


12 


174 


241 


SA 
















22 


21 


31 


21 


32 


29 


17 


10 


19 


202 


244 


4B 


















26 


33 


46 


33 


35 


28 


22 


30 


253 


321 


4A 




















30 


24 


37 


24 


18 


13 


33 


179 


257 



TABLE 10b 
Same in Per Cents 
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base 



Grades 


8B 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


sB 


sA 


4B 


4A 


3B 


3A 


2B 


2A 


iB 

per 
cent 


lA 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


8B 


5-8 


41 


6.6 


9.1 


7-4 


5-8 


5.8 


4.1 


2.5 


3-3 


3-3 


4-1 


1-7 


3-3 


1-7 


1-7 


8A 




6.1 


9.1 


14.1 


16.2 


4.0 


6.1 


6.1 


6.1 


S.I 


4.0 


4.0 


0.0 


l.o 


0.0 


I.O 


7B 






13.8 


6.9 


S-4 


9.2 


6.2 


4.6 


3-1 


3-1 


2.3 


4.6 


0.8 


3-1 


1-5 


4.6 


7A 








152 


8.S 


9.1 


6.1 


II-5 


7.3 


8.S 


4.8 


3.6 


1.8 


2.4 


1.8 


1.2 


6B 










10.6 


10. 1 


12.4 


8.3 


6.9 


7-3 


6.0 


6.4 


4.1 


4.6 


2.8 


1.8 


6A 












10. 1 


10. 1 


11-3 


8.0 


8.4 


I0.5 


5-9 


5-5 


S-S 


1-3 


4.6 


sB 












12.4 


12.0 


8.3 


7-1 


9-5 


7.1 


4-1 


3-3 


3-3 


5.0 


sA 
















9.0 


8.6 


12.7 


8.6 


131 


II. 9 


7.0 


4-1 


7.8 


4B 
















8.1 


10.3 


14.3 


10.3 


10.9 


8.7 


6.9 


9-3 


4A 


















II. 7 


9-3 


14.4 


9-3 


7.0 


S-i 


12.8 


Aver.i 


5.8 


5-0 


lO.O 


ii-S 


9-4 


8.7 


9.2 


9.1 


7-1 


8.6 


8.4 


8.3 


6.1 


5-3 


3-4 


5.9 


Aver, 
of per 
cents 


5.8 


51 


9.8 


II-3 


9.6 


8.1 


8.4 


8.4 


6.5 


7.8 


7-3 


7-4 


S-o 


4.6 


2.9 


S-O 



1 In this row the averages are obtained from Table loa as follows:^ For example, there 
are 11 of those now in 8B who were left back in 7A; 14 now in 8A who were left 
back in 7 A; 9 in 7B left back in 7 A; and 25 in 7 A left back in 7 A. The sum of these is 
5 9. Dividing same by the sum of the total promotions and non-promotions in grades 
8B, 8A, 7B, and 7A as recorded in the last column ©f Table loa, i.e., 121 -(-09 +130 -Hi65 = 
515; and then changing quotient to per cent one gets 11. 5 per cent. This statement of 
averages is a truer one than that made in the bottom row of Table lob as the latter states 
merely the averages of gross per cents and in doing eo weights all grades alike. 



New York City {One Distrkt) 1,312 Cases 37 

Reading from Table 10 b it is seen, concerning those now in 
8 B of the initial starters, that 5.8 per cent represents the amount 
of non-promotion in grade SB; 4.1 per cent in grade 8 A; 6.6 
per cent in grade 7B; 9.1 per cent in grade 7 A; 7.4 per cent 
in grade 6 B, etc., . . . to 1.7 per cent in grade i A. Again 
concerning those now in 8 A, there was a non-promotion of 6.1 
per cent in 8 A; 9.1 per cent in 7B; 14.1 per cent in 7 A, 

etc to I per cent in i A. In like manner, the other 

grammar grades may be interpreted. 

In fine, it may be said concerning those pupils who are now 
in grade 8 B that the retention in grade 8 B amounts to about 
one in seventeen ; of those who are in 8 B or are in 8 A, it is 
about one in twenty in the 8 A grade ; of those in or beyond 7 B 
it is about one in ten in grade 7 B ; about one in nine in 7 A, etc. 
To account for the low percentages in the first and second 
grades is difficult. One may contend that the memory of the 
pupil in the higher grade is at fault, that he is more inclined 
to forget that he was left back in i A or i B than in the other 
grades. While this is possible, it certainly does not seem prob- 
able as the entire cause. Perhaps it may be due to the fact 
that the number of incoming new pupils is, as a rule, quite 
large, and in consequence there is the necessity for promoting 
freely in the lowest grades of the school to afiford sitting room 
for the new arrivals. Again it may be that many "under-age" 
pupils enter the i A or i B grades and, after a short time, are 
taken out by their parents on account of the strain and placed 
in the kindergarten or are kept at home for the rest of the year. 
These pupils, if asked later in school life to state the grades in 
which they were left back, would not be inclined to say that they 
were " held over " in i A or i B, provided that on their second 
trial which covered a full term, they passed through these grades 
successfully. And it does seem reasonable to justify their atti- 
tude in this matter. 

Turning to Table 10 b again one notes the large per cents in 
the seventh grades. This seems to indicate that these grades are 
the chief stumbling blocks, serving to delay the normal progress 
of a considerable number and so acting with telling efifect as 
the final weeding-out process of the incapable. 

Of course it may be argued that whereas about one-half of 
the pupils in the seventh grades (see Table 2) are fourteen years 



38 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

or more, in consequence the desire to drop out and go to work, 
coupled with a consequent indifference to the work in these 
grades, makes for this high rate of " hold-overs," especially when 
the said pupils are not permitted by their parents to leave school. 
On the other hand, does not the relative time manifestation of 
this final selective action seem to be the natural course of events 
in the high school and the college as well as in the elementary 
school? Once a student has reached the senior year of his 
course, one may safely say that he will almost invariably be 
graduated at the end of the year, the next to the last year func- 
tioning as the ultimate selective force. 

The following comparative grade study uses data furnished 
in Table 10 b. Comparing those who are now in the sixth 
grades with those now in the fourth grades as to the number of 
times left back, say in the third grades, this table shows : 

Grades 3B 3A Grades 3B 3A 

per cent per cent 

In 6B grade 6.0 6.4 In 4 B grade 14-3 10 -3 

In 6A grade 10.5 5.9 In 4 A grade 9.3 14.4 

Median 6.2 Median 12.3 

Generally speaking, then, this means that of those who are now 
in the sixth grades about i in 15 was left back in the third grade; 
whereas of those who are in the fourth grades the ratio of reten- 
tion increases to approximately i in 8. The differences become 
more marked as we compare grades farther apart. To illustrate, 
of those now in the eighth grades it will be found that only i in 
25 was left back in the third grades. 

Now comparing the eighth and seventh grades with the fifth 
and fourth grades with respect to non-promotion in the third 
grades, one notes the following distribution : 

Grades 3B 3A Grades 3B 3A 

per cent per cent 

8B grade 3.3 4.1 5 B grade 9.5 7.1 

8 A grade 4.0 4.0 5 A grade 8.6 13.1 

7 B grade 2.3 4.6 4 B grade 14 -3 10 -3 

7 A grade 4.8 3.6 4A grade 9.3 14.4 

Median 4.0 Median _ 9.9 

That is, the ratio of non-promotion in the third grades of 
those initial starters who are now in the seventh and eighth 
grades to those now in the fourth and fifth grades, is. as 4 is to 
10 approximately. 



New York City {One District) 1,312 Cases 39 

Assuming the proper correction to be made for errors of 
memory in those cases where the card records were not obtain- 
able and the teachers and classmates were unable to check up the 
doubtful pupils' statements, it seems justifiable to conclude that 
intrinsically the grades one to seven in this district are progres- 
sively harder. For the same pupil, retardation becomes more 
probable grade by grade till the eighth. The common view that 
retardation is chiefly a matter of the primary grades is certainly 
false for these schools, the fact being that the many pupils who 
are retarded in grades one to four would be retarded still oftener 
if they continued in school. 



CHAPTER III 

ELIZABETH, N. J. 1,088 CASES 

In Elizabeth, N. J., five schools were visited during the month 
of March, 1910. These schools typify conditions in all sections 
of the city. They represent the entire number of schools having 
the complete series of grades from the first to the eighth inclusive. 
The records of 1,088 pupils were obtained and tabulated ac- 
cording to the method employed in Chapter II. The numbers of 
pupils on register in the schools studied are approximately: 
School G, 600; School H, 1,600; School I, 900; School J, 500; 
School K, 700. 

The Migration of Pupils 

Table 11 shows the per cents of initial starters.^ Subtracting 
these per cents from 100 per cent one may determine the relative 
amount of migration in these schools plus, as was previously ex- 
plained, the percentage of those pupils who were admitted as 
absolutely new pupils in or beyond the second grade. 



TABLE 11 

Per Cents of Initial Starters 



Schccls 


G 


H 


I 


J 


K 


Aver. 


Grades 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


Eighth 


8 


61 


7 


19 


55 


32.9 


Seventh 


9 


58 


32 


26 


44 


33-6 


Sixth 


16 


57 


33 


46 


3 5 


37-0 


Fifth 


3 7 


60 


54 


53 


38^ 


51-5 


Fourth 


43 


48 


51 


35 


41 


44.8 


A vera ge 


23 


57 


35 


36 


43 


40.8 



^ Method of obtaining these per cents is explained on page 2 i, chap. II 
40 



Elizabeth, N.J. i,o88 Cases 



41 



From Table 11 it is seen that on the average 40.8 per cent^ of 
the pupils in grades four through eight of the schools of Eliza- 
beth began their work in the first, grade of the schools they now 
attend. The range is from 23 per cent in School G to 57 per 
cent in School H. Grades 6, 7, and 8 average below 40.8 per cent, 
grades 4 and 5 are above, indicating the lack of persistency on 
the part of the initial starters as they advance to the higher 
grammar grades. 

The Age-Grade Relations of the 1,088 Initial Starters 

The distribution of pupils according to age at the time of 
entrance to the present grade is shown in the following table. 
The percentages of retardation are printed in the last column. 

TABLE 12 
Five Schools. Age Distribution. Aggregate 1,088 Cases 



Grades 


8 


9 


IC 


1 1 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Total 


Abovt 
mal 

No. 


;Nor- 
Age 

Per 
cent 


Eighth 










10 


4C 


42 


31 


7 


130 


80 


61.5 


Seventh 








10 


M 


58 


46 


18 


3 


172 


125 


72.7 


Sixth 






14 


34 


Si 


48 


35 


6 


2 


218 


170 


78.0 


Fifth 




8 


46 


107 


99 


62 


27 






349 


295 


84.5 


Fourth 


4 


.3 7 


65 


48 


41 


13 


1 1 






2ig 


178 


81.3 










Total . . 




1,088 


Cases 





In the eighth grade 61.5 per cent of the pupils are reported as 
being "over-age," assuming 13 years to 13 years 11 months 
as the normal entrance age to the eighth grade ; '/2.y per cent in 
grade 7; 78.0 per cent in grade 6; 84.5 per cent in grade 5; 
and 81.3 per cent in grade 4. These percentages are extremely 
high and show a marked progressive decrease from the fifth grade 
to the eighth grade inclusive. Counting only those pupils in 
the fourth grade as "over-age" who exceed the age limit of 9 

1 This percentage is derived by dividing the entire number of records 
obtained by the total register o'f the five schools (grades 4 to 8 only) 
at the time of visitation. 



42 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



years o months to 9 years ii months inclusive by one or more 
years and measuring the other grades accordingly these percent- 
ages of retardation would lower to: Eighth grade, 29.2 per 
cent ; seventh grade, 39.0 per cent ; sixth grade, 40.8 per cent ; 
fifth grade, 53.9 per cent; and fourth grade, 51.6 per cent. 

The distribution of the retarded pupils in these grades accord- 
ing to sex is shown in the table and charts following. 



TABLE 13 
Five Schools. Age-Grade Table Showing Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 
2 

5 


Total 


Abov 
mal 

No. 


e Nor- 
Age 

Per 
cent 


Eighth 










6 

4 


21 
^9 


25 
17 


10 
21 


64 
66 


37 
43 


57 
65 


8 
2 


Seventh 








6 

4 


22 
IS 


27 
31 


21 

25 


5 
13 


3 



84 
88 


56 
69 


66 

78 


7 

4 


Sixth 






8 
6 


15 

55 
52 


47 
34 

52 
47 


27 
21 

29 

33 


12 
21 

II 
16 


2 
4 



2 


103 


82 


76 
79 


5 
6 


Fifth 




6 

2 


T5 


165 


^47 
148 


79 
89 


7 


Fourth 


3 

I 


22 


33 
32 


28 

2C 


J/ 

24 


5 
8 


4 
7 






112 

107 


87 
91 


77 
85 


7 



Total 


55P 
529 


Girls 
Boys 





r<S- r'c^ Q^n -is, 

80 

70 
fco 
50 
40 
30 
?o 
)o 



P&T-cj^n is. 



10 
feo 
50 
40 
3o 

)0 



GracJ&s. S 7 fe 5 4 

Chaet 7 a. Percentages of re- 
tarded boys 



Grac/'S'S 8 7 i 5 4 

Chart 7 b. Percentages of re- 
tarded girls 



Elizabeth, N.J. i,oS8 Cases 



43 



In the schools of EHzabeth there seems to be no doubt con- 
cerning sex difference in retardation. In every instance as shown 
in the preceding table the boys are more retarded than the girls. 
The median for the 529 cases (boys) in grades 4 through 8 is 
79.6; whereas for the 559 cases (girls) it is 76.5. In the two 
upper grammar grades the boys as compared with the girls show 
relatively more "over-ageness" than in the two lower grades. 
With both sexes the same progressive increase in retardation is 
noticeable (see charts 5 a and 5 b) in descending from the eighth 
to the fourth grade. Were the theoretical age limit for the fourth 
grade taken to extend from 9 to 1 1 years, for the fifth grade from 
10 to 12 years, for the sixth grade from 11 to 13 years, etc., 
the "over-age" boys in each case would again be recorded in 
larger numbers. 

Table 14 shows the distribution of the 1,088 cases according 
to age at the time of their entrance to the first grade of the school 
in which they now attend. 

TABLE 14 

Age Distribution of 1,088 Pupils at Time of Entrance to the 

First Grade 



Schools 


5 


6 


7 


8 

or 
more 


Total 


Above 
A 

No. 


Normal 

Per 
cent 


G 


5 


36 


60 


32 


^U 


92 


69.2 


H 


17 


145 


246 


120 


528 


366 


693 


I 


4 


62 


65 


ii 


164 


98 


59.8 


J 


3 


32 


51 


24 


no 


75 


68.2 


K 


5 


37 


74 


3 7 


153 


III 


72.5 


Total 


34 


312 


496 


246 


1,088 


742 


68.2 



Approximately 68 per cent of the cases studied were "over- 
age" at the time of entrance to the first grade. Relative to this 
exceptionally high figure, the superintendent explained that the 
parents were encouraged during the past five years by the medi- 
cal officials of the city in public circulars and otherwise, not to 



44 ^ Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

send their children to school before the age of seven. This ac- 
counts for the fact that of the five cities reported on in this 
study, Elizabeth records by far the largest percentage of initial 
"over-ageness."^ The modal entrance age as shown in the fore- 
going distribution is clearly in the group, 7 years to 7 years 11 
months inclusive. 

The distribution of these 1,088 pupils at the time of their 
school entrance is again recorded in Table 15. This table is 
more valuable in that it shows also the distribution by grades. 

From the percentages of "over-ageness" at the time of entrance 
to the first grade, as read in the last column of Table 15, one 
notes that in grades 4 and 5 such "over-ageness" is at a maxi- 
mum. Evidently the fact aforementioned concerning the atti- 
tude of the medical men largely accounts for these high percent- 
ages. The upper grades show less pupils above normal age. 
Whereas it is certainly wrong in comparing Tables 15 and 12 
to say positively that 61.5 per cent now in the eighth grade are 
"over-age," 56.2 per cent of the eighth grade pupils were "over- 
age" at the time of entrance to the first grade, therefore approx- 
imately 85 per cent of those who are "over-age" now are so be- 
cause of "over-ageness" at the time of school entrance, still it may 
be true and is highly probable that the vast majority of the re- 
tarded pupils in the Elizabeth schools are so in consequence 
of their initial "over-ageness" on starting school. 

Comparison of sexes in the matter of age-record at the time of 
their entrance to the first grades is shown in Table 16 and 
accompanying charts. 

Of the 529 boys whose records were taken, 72.2 per cent were 
found to be over 6 years 11 months when they entered the first 
grade; of the 559 girl initial starters, 61.5 per cent were thus 
"over-age." Just as was pointed out in comparing the boys and 
girls classified as retarded in their present grades (see page 43), 
the boys in each grade show here larger percentages above the as- 
sumed normal entrance age. 

In the eighth grade whereas 65.2 per cent (Table 13) of the 
boys are above normal age, a still larger proportion (74.2 per 
cent) of these boys were "over-age" when they began school. In 
all the other grades the percentages of initial "over-ageness" 
closely approximate the present "over-ageness" in the case of 

iSee Chapter VII, Table 51. 



Elizabeth, N.J. i,oSS Cases 



45 



Ph 



^ H 



w 


H 


hJ 


o; 


m 


(/) 


< 


J 


H 


CU 




D 




CIh 



o <u 

O "J 




1 <N 


OO 


CO 

SO 


4 
1- 


On 


N 

00 

NO 


d 




ON 


0^ 


o 

\o 


NO 




O 1^ 

HO 


o 


M 
r^ 


00 
(N 


t 


ON 


00 
00 

o_ 


o 

"5) 
W 


w 


CO 


T^ 


00 


\0 


NO 




o 

1—1 


N 


LO 





r^ 




1— 1 


M •rt- 


•^ 


M 


On ro 


s 




o 




^ 


O 
IN 


o 


CO "-' 


^^ 


u 


tNl 


C 
CO 


w 


ro 


CO 


o o 


IN 


rj- 


•—1 


M 


ro 


N 




o> 






vO 


-o 


o 


On 


NO 


ffi 




o 


IT) 


ON 

NO 


t 


NO 


o 


vO 


00 


ro l^ 


NO 
t-I 


O 

•NO 


Six Years 


^.^ 


•^ 


IN 


^ 


On 


U-) 




•—1 


'S- 


00 


lO 


OO 


t^ 


i^ 


- 


CO 


0^ 


00 


" 


O 

M 


NO 


ffi 


OO 


o 


00 




IN 




o 


Tt vO On m 1 vO O 


u 

>^ 

> 


w 


O 


(N 





l-H 


IN 


in 


•— > 


hH 


" 


^ 





o 


1^ 


H- 1 


<N 




o 


M 


o 


1 


ffi " 


'^ 


ro 


•~o 


IN 


M 


o 


" 


o 


" 


(N 


■"^ 


LO 


CO 

be 
< 


o 
o 

CO 


to 

03 

o 


J3 

a; 

Cfl 




^ 

E 


n 
o 
tj-, 


03 

o 
H 



46 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



fe 



< 

Z 

o . 

a I 



H 





f^ 


o 


< 


Y— ( 






m 


W 


F-1 


h-1 


& 


PQ 


t3 


<1 


Ph 


H 


CO 



Above Nor- 
mal Age 








"^00 
^ IN 
NO ^ 


1-^ (N 

NO 00 


On o' 

Vi 00 


^J~l c^ 

1-1 u-j 
NO r^ 




^ IN 




^NO 

CM ro 


Oo NO 
t^oo 


^00 

^ On 


'— ' tr. 

O cc 

HO 


VD MO 


OO 00 


ir-) ro 
>-i O 

1-1 M 


1 

OO NO 


CM r^ 

1-1 O 

1-1 M 


On On 

l<-^ IN 


o 
u 

W 


■;v; 


0) 


1 rr^ M ^ •* 


0\ 1^ 


CV-, CO 


O r^ 
CM M 


►— > 


1 o o 


1-1 M CM CO '^t'O 


'^ CO 


i~i ro 

1-1 H 


1— I 


i-s 1-1 


r<l M 


'^i CM r-v ^ 


'^ LO 


C5s •* 

1-1 M 




1-1 i-s M 


OvCO 

1-1 M 


U~)VO 


O 


l-i (N 


<^ <N 


0-) ^ u~,\n 


■^ ro 


<5 NO 


12 

>^ 
C 
> 


\^ 


N Ol 


1-H CN W~) UO 


CM CN 


VD NO 




1 > 


1-1 (N 


K:, NO 


1-1 M 


CN-)NO 


C^OO 
CM N 


h-l 


H t~o 


t^l -* 


t>0 (X) 


Oo P) 


On 


Oo r-- 

CM CO 


w 


H IN 


CM 00 
CM <N 


CO 00 
CM CT 


1-1 00 


O 0) 
CM N 


O CO 

1~( M 


o 


tVj ly-5 


l>,o 


(^ o 


y^ O 


■^nO 

CM r<0 


1-. 
C/2 


w 


W-^ IN 


t^ lO CM IN 


VD ro 


^M 


CM H 


1—) 


r^M 


'^^ 


•^M 


^ <N 


M- CO 


1-1 w 
CM M 


1— 1 


v:^ N 


0\ O 

M 


ij-, ro CNJ u-; NQ, ^ 

1-1 


c^ cs 


^1 O CC O 

m 1 (M i-H M 


CM H 


CM LO C»-) On 
CM w 1-1 


^ ON 

Oo uo 


o 


<^ H 1 '^a- p) ij-) '^ 


Co CO 


^ M -^ (N 
CM H 


1/1 
u 
03 


14 "° 


N M O O 


>~H O 


1-1 H 


c»-; (N 


O M O M 
1 > 


1-1 O 


o o 


o o 


1-1 <s 


1— 1 


l-i w 


1-1 o 


O 


>-i o 


o o 


cv^M 




S M 


■^ CO 


CM H 


CM H 


1-1 M 


O r- 


H O 


o o 


^ O 


CM 


•~i o 


^ O 


CO 
bJD 

< 


r/5 

'o 
o 


ha 
W 


c 
> 

<Li 






u 

o 


ct3 
O 

H 









Elizabeth, N . 


/• ^ 


,o88 Cases 


47 


Pe/rc' e/n is. 
85 




35 

8o 






1 




SO 






75 










75 
70 
45 
6o 




70 














1 


4.5 




4,0 




55 








55 




50 




50 




45 




45 






40 




40 








35 


35 






30 




3o 






r5 




IS 






zo 




1o 






15 




15 






10 




10 






5 




5 






Croa 


W 8 


7 


(c 


5 4 


Graa 


fejr 8 


7 


& 5 4 



Chart 8 a. " Over-age " boys 
entering first grade 



Chart 8 b. " Over-age " girls 
entering first grade 



the boys. Some such statement then as the following is justifi- 
able : Whereas the boys are more retarded than the girls in 
the schools of Elizabeth, such retardation is probably due more 
to initial retardation rather than to failure to pass regularly 
through the grades. As for the boys this would seem at first 
glance to argue the advisability of encouraging them to enter 
school later in years. Table i8b (page 49) however disproves 
this. 

That the boys are more variable than the girls in this instance 
is again evident from the appended diagrams. Note the progres- 
sive increase in initial "over-ageness" of the girls in grades 8 
through 4 (Chart 8 b). The same steady increase in present 
" over-ageness " is to be noted in Chart 7 b, page 42. 

The Incidence of Retardation 
The numbers of repeating and non-repeating pupils of the 
1,088 children investigated are shown in Table 17 a. These fig- 
ures are changed to per cents in Table 17 b. 



48 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



TABLE 17a 
Five Schools. Aggregate i,o88 Cases 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth- 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


^5i 


176 


^iZ 


113 


92 


One 


56 


127 


62 


40 


29 


Two 


22 


3^ 


20 


17 


7 


Three 


6 


6 


3 


2 


I 


Four 


2 


2 








I 


Total' Left Back 


86 


173 


85 


59 


38 


Total Cases 


219 


349 


218 


172 


130 



TABLE 17b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 




per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


61 


50 


61 


66 


71 


One 


26 


36 


28 


23 


22 


Two 


10 


1 1 


9 


10 


5 


Three 


3 


2 


I 


I 


I 


Four 


I 


I 








I 


Total Left Back 


39 


50 


39 


34 


29 



In the five grades tabulated, the mode in each case is in the 
"no-time" group. Although the percentages of retardation are 
highest in the Elizabeth schools, the percentages of pupils re- 
peating during their entire school life are lowest when compared 
with those of the other four cities. This again seems to point 
to the fact that the present considerable "over-ageness" in the 
schools of this city is due largely to "over-ageness" at the time 
of entrance to the first grade. 

The sex distribution of repeaters and non-repeaters is shown 
next in tables and diagrams. 



Elizabeth, N.J. i,(><SS Cases 



49 



TABLE 18a 
Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During School Lite 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


71 
62 


102 
74 


83 

50 


56 

57 


47 
45 


One 


32 
24 


60 
67 


27 

35 


18 
22 


14 
15 


Two 


6 
16 


18 

20 


5 
15 


8 


2 
5 


Three 


3 
3 


2 

4 




3 


I 
I 




I 


Four 



2 


2 










I 



Total Left Back 


4r 
45 


82 
91 


.?2 

53 


2^ 
31 


^7 
21 


Total Ca.ses 


112 

107 


184 
165 


115 
103 


.^4 
88 


^4 
66 



TABLE 18b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 




per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


()3-4 
57-9 


55-4 
44.8 


72 .2 
48.5 


66.7 
64.8 


73-4 
68.2 


One 


28.6 
22 .4 


32.6 
40 .6 


23-5 
34 -o 


21 .4 

25.0 


27 .p 

22.7 


Two 


5-4 
15 .0 


9.8 
12 . r 


4-3 
14 .6 


70.7 
9.1 


3-^ 
7.6 


Three 


2.7 
2.8 


2.5 


0.0 
2.9 


7 .2 
I .2 


0.0 

1-5 


Four 


0.0 
I .9 


I .1 
.0 


.0 
.0 


0.0 

.0 


I .6 

.0 


Total Left Back 


36.6 
42.1 


44.6 
56.4 


27. .S' 
51-5 


33-3 

35-2 


2f5.^ 

31.8 



50 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



15 TS 




10 




10 






fcS 




t5 




40 




to 






55 




55 






50 




50 






45 




45 






40 




40 






35 




55 






30 




30 

. ■ 






25 






25 












20 




20 








If 




15 




10 






)0 




5 






5 










1 







^om 



One 



Thre/e/ Foe 



Mon&' One, 



Thi-ae. Four 



Chart g a. Eighth grade boys. 
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- 
ing school life 



Chart 9 b. Eighth grade girls. 
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- 
ing school life 



The girls recorded in these five schools are unquestionably 
brighter than the boys if one measures mental ability on the basis 
of the relative frequency of promotions and non-promotions. In 
the fourth through the eighth grades the ratio of the regularly 
promoted girls to the total number of girls promoted and non- 
promoted exceeds that of the boys similarly figured. The boys 
in almost every grade are also left back more frequently once, 
twice, and three times. The two girls in the fifth grade and the 
one in the eighth grade (see Table 18 a) repeating four times are 
quite exceptional. 

In the eighth grade, it is seen from Table 18 b that 73.4 per 
cent of all the girls studied, were never left back during their en- 
tire school life; 21.9 per cent were left back once; and 3.1 per 
cent, twice. Of the boys 68.2 per cent were promoted regularly 
since school entrance ; 22.7 per cent failed once ; and 7.6 per cent 
failed twice. Again it would seem that the selected girls who 
reach the graduating class must be credited with better records 
although the differences are not so marked as in the lower grades, 
especially the sixth. Judged accordingly, the girls here by far 



Elizabeth, N.J. i,oSS Cases 



SI 



outstrip the boys in mental ability. The charts show respectively 
the percentages of promoted and non-promoted eighth grade boys 
and girls. The one glaring fact is the large percentages of regu- 
larly advancing pupils in both cases. 

Relative to the grade distribution of the repeating pupils, Table 
19 a in actual numbers and Table 19 b in per cents show plainly 
such incidence of retardation. 



TABLE 19a 
Grade Distribution of Non-Promotion in Aggregate 





bo 


> 


(7) 








c 





Grand Total 


Grades 


No. 
Left 
back 


Total 
Prom, 
and 
Non- 
Prom. 


Eighth 


8 


13 


3 


3 


6 


7 


5 


5 


50 


142 


Seventh 




24 


9 


8 


5 


8 


1 1 


15 


80 


193 


Sixth 






30 


25 


24 


13 


9 


10 


III 


244 


Fifth 








77 


49 


41 


33 


29 


229 


405 


Fourth 










46 


37 


24 


19 


126 


259 



TABLE 19b 

Same in Per Cents 
LTsing Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base 





Eighth 


Seventh 


Sixth 


Fifth 


Fourth 


Third 


Second 


First 


Grades 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


Eighth 


5-6 


9.2 


2 .1 


2 .1 


4.2 


4.9 


3-5 


3-5 


Seventh 




12 .4 


4.7 


4.1 


2.6 


4.1 


5-7 


7.8 


Sixth 






12 .3 


10 .2 


9.8 


5 -3 


3-7 


4.1 


Fifth 








19.0 


12 .1 


10 . 1 


8.1 


7.2 


Fourth 










17.8 


10.4 


9-3 


7-3 


Aver. 


5-6 


II .0 


7-3 


" -5 


10.5 


8.5 


6.6 


6.3 



52 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

The progressive increase of retardation till the sixth grade is 
manifest in the bottom row of average percentages, Table 19 b, 
computed in the manner explained in the preceding chapter on 
page 36. The distribution curve in the case of the school children 
of Elizabeth would show two distinct high levels, one in the fifth 
grade and the other in the seventh. It is reasonable to suppose 
then that a large number of pupils are eliminated in the difficult 
fourth and fifth grades and that those pupils who remain find 
little trouble in accomplishing the sixth grade work but are sub- 
jected to the final selective test when they enter the seventh 
grade. The successful seventh grade scholars then pass into the 
easy eighth grade, from which nearly all at the close of the year 
are permitted to graduate. 

Comparing percentages of eighth, sixth, and fourth grade pu- 
pils with respect to their records of failure in the third grade. 

Table 19 b shows : 

Third Grade 
per cent 

In eighth grade 4.9 

In sixth grade 5.3 

In fourth grade 10.4 

Approximately twice as many pupils in the fourth grade as 
compared with either the sixth or eighth grade are left back in the 
third grade. In grades eight and six about i in 20 were "held 
over" in the third grade, whereas of the fourth grade pupils as 
many as i in 10 failed in the lower grade. 

The relative amounts of retention in the third grade of the 
eighth and seventh grade pupils and those of the fifth and fourth 

grades are: 

Third Grade Third Grade 

per cent per cent 

In eighth grade 4.9 In fifth grade 10. i 

In seventh grade 4.1 In fourth grade 10.4 

Median 4.5 Median 10.3 

In fine, then, it may be said that the fourth or fifth grade pupil 
is left back in the third grade more than twice as often as the 
eighth or seventh grade pupil. The fact that the fourth, fifth, 
and seventh grades in this city school system are the most difficult 
for the children who have gone through them, is undeniable. The 
high percentage of repetition in the seventh grade indicates this 
grade to be the ultimate selective force. Those who just survive 
the fourth and fifth grades, were they to remain, would most 
probably be "held over" again in the seventh grade if not elim- 
inated altogether. 



CHAPTER IV 

PATERSON, N. J. 1,246 CASES 

The five schools of Paterson, N. J., reported in this chapter 
furnished records of 1,246 initial starters. Only the grammar 
grade pupils are considered and these are tabulated as in New 
York City in half-yearly grades. The "A" classes, however, are 
the upper and the "B" classes the lower grades in the Paterson 
school system. School O with 1,500 pupils registered represents 
the largest school and School N with a registry of 900 pupils, 
the smallest at the time of visitation during the months of March 
and April, 1910. 

The Migration of Pupils 

The approximate percentages of initial starters now in the 
grammar grades are shown in Table 20. 

TABLE 20 

Per Cents of Initial Starters 



Schools 


L 


M 


N 





P 


Average 


Grades 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


8A 


62 


39 


37 


52 


49 


48.3 


8B 


44 


57 


44 


60 


44 


51 .0 


7A 


33 


58 


38 


49 


43 


47-4 


7B 


67 


60 


41 


60 


45 


55-4 


6A 


46 


47 


49 


52 


53 


50.3 


6B 


38 


47 


39 


41 


28 


40 . 1 


SA 


46 


55 


45 


59 


36 


49-1 


5B 


55 


43 


61 


53 


37 


50-3 


Average 


48 


51 


45 


54 


43 


48.9 



53 



54 I ^ Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

Accordingly 48.9 per cent of the grammar grade pupils regis- 
tered in the five schools are rated as initial starters. That is, ap- 
proximately half the number of grammar grade children in the 
Paterson schools must have either migrated to the schools they 
now attend from other schools in Paterson or from other cities 
or else must have been admitted as new pupils in their present 
school in a higher grade than the first. This would seem to be 
the tendency in all the grammar grades with but slight deviation. 
The largest school, School O, with .52 in 8 A and .60 in 8 B 
and an average for all the grammar grades of .54 excels all 
the others in percentages of initial starters. 

The Age-Grade Relations of the 1,246 Initial Starters 

The 1,246 pupils tabulated in the following distribution are seg- 
regated with respect to age at the time of entrance to the present 
grade. 

TABLE 21 
Five Schools. Age Distribution. Aggregate 1,246 Cases 



Grades 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


T3 


14 


15 


16 


Total 


Abov 
mal 

No. 


eNor- 
Age 

Per 

cent 


8A 










17 


5c 


37 


17 


8 


129 


62 


48.1 


8B 








3 


42 


53 


39 


9 


I 


147 


49 


33-3 


7A 






I 


15 


63 


53 


28 


2 




162 


83 


51-2 


7B 






10 


44 


58 


52 


20 


2 




186 


74 


39-8 


6A 




3 


14 


57 


59 


29 


14 






176 


102 


58.0 


6B 




3 


19 


56 


35 


21 


6 






140 


62 


44-3 


5^ 




13 


38 


46 


23 


16 


3 






139 


88 


63-3 


sB 


7 


41 


59 


27 


13 


18 


2 






167 


60 


3 5-9 












Tota 


1 


1,246 


Cases 















The percentages of "over-ageness" in the grades of the Pater- 
son schools are seen to be relatively small but considerable vari- 
ation is manifest. The fifth and sixth grades show higher per- 
centages than the seventh and eighth. The upper seventh grade 



Paterson, N . J. 1,246 Cases 



55 



recording 51.2 per cent as above normal age is significant. Those 
that do reach this grade are probably " held back " here more 
than in the preceding grades. (See Table 21.) 

Assuming 14 years to 14 years 11 months inclusive instead 
of 13 years to 13 years 11 months inclusive as the normal en- 
trance age to the eighth grade, the percentages of "over-age" 
pupils would decrease to: 8 A grade, 19.4 per cent; 8B grade, 
6.8 per cent; 7 A grade, 18.5 per cent; 7B grade, 11.8 per cent; 
6 A grade, 24.4 per cent; 6B grade, 14.3 per cent; 5 A grade, 
30.2 per cent ; 5 B grade, 19.8 per cent. 

Note that in each instance the lower " B " grades show smaller 
percentages of retarded pupils than the upper "A" grades for 



TABLE 22 
Five Schools. Age-Grade Table Showing Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


8 


9 


10 


1 1 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Total 


Above Nor- 
mal Age 




No. 


Per 

cent 


8A 










12 

5 


32 
18 


^5 
22 


8 
9 


3 

5 


70 
59 


26 

26 


.?7-i 
44.1 


8B 








I 
2 


22 

20 


26 
27 


15 

24 


I 
8 




I 


65 
82 


16 

00 


24.6 

40.2 


7A 






I 



9 
6 


38 

25 


32 
21 


16 
12 


I 

I 




97 
65 


49 
34 


52.3 


7B 






5 
5 


23 

2T 


25 


25 
27 


8 
12 


I 
I 




^7 
99 


' 34 
40 


5(9.1 

40.4 


6A 




2 
I 


8 
6 


29 

28 


23 
36 


18 
II 


9 

5 






89 
87 


50 
52 


0.2 

59-8 


6B 




2 
I 


10 
9 


33 

23 


12 

23 


10 
II 



6 






67 

73 


22 

40 


54.8 


5A 




9 

4 


18 

20 


2g 

17 


10 
13 


9 

7 


2 
I 






77 
62 


1'' 
38 


64.9 
61.3 


5B 


4 
3 


26 
15 


24 
3 5 


II 
16 


8 


7 
II 



2 






77 
90 


2J 
37 


25.9 
41. 1 


Total 


629 
611 


Girls 
Boys 





56 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

the reason that the same theoretical normal age was assumed 
for the lower half-yearly grade as for the higher. The same 
holds true of the New York City schools with the single ex- 
ception of the eighth grades. (See Chapter II, page 22.) If, 
for example, the age limit for the 8 B grade were taken to ex- 
tend from 13 years to 13 years 11 months inclusive, it would per- 
haps have been fairer to have taken 13 years 6 months to 14 years 
5 months inclusive as the normal entrance age to the 8 A grade. 

Table 22 and the graphic illustrations represent the sex distri- 
bution of the " under-age," " normal," and " over-age " pupils, 
the diagrams referring only to the last group. (Chart 10 a and 
10 b which refer to Table 22 are found on page 60.) 

From the preceding age-grade table one learns that with the ex- 
ception of grade 5 A, the boys are retarded much more often than 
the girls. The median in the case of the former for the eight 
grades tabulated would be 48.2 ; in the case of the latter, only 
38.1. The diiference is most marked in the two eighth grades. 
The boys as compared with the girls who do reach these grades 
are much older. The larger ratios of "over-age" boys would 
still hold in all grades excepting 7 A and 6 A were the age limit 
raised a year in each case. The charts illustrate plainly that in 
the matter of retardation the grammar grade girls of the Pater- 
son schools are much more variable than the boys. 

The following table records the age distribution of these gram- 
mar grade pupils at the time of their entrance to the i B grade 
of the school in which they now are. 

Of the 1,246 initial starters, 286 or only 23 per cent were 
over 6 years 11 months when they entered the i B grade of the 
school. Just as Paterson with no exception has less retardation 
in its grammar grades than the other cities, it likewise shows con- 
siderably less initial " over-ageness " of its local beginners. 
Whereas the largest school, School O, had the largest percent- 
age of initial starters (see page 53), Table 23 records this school 
as having the largest percentage of "over-ageness" on the part 
of such pupils. School N with next to the smallest percentage 
in Table 20 holds in Table 23 the minimum record. The median 
entrance age in the Paterson schools would fall in the group 6 



Paterson, N . J ■ 1,246 Cases 



57 



years to 6 years 11 months inclusive, the normal entrance age 
considered throughout in this special study. 

TABLE 23 

Age Distribution of 1,246 Pupils at Time of Entrance 
TO iB Grade 



















Above Nor- 
mal Age 


Schools 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Total 






















Per 


















No. 


cent 


L 


84 


69 


39 


8 


5 





205 


52 


25-4 


M 


122 


84 


43 


4 


3 





256 


50 


19.8 


N 


76 


66 


26 


7 








175 


33 


18.9 





15^^ 


137 


67 


22 


15 


4 


403 


108 


26.8 


P 


74 


90 


39 


3 


I 





207 


43 


20.8 


Total 


514 


446 


214 


44 


24 


4 


1,246 


286 


23.0 



Table 24 shows the same pupils considered in Table 23 dis- 
tributed according to present grade and entrance age to the i B 
grade. 

Comparing this table with Table 21 one can find little reason 
to explain the present grade "over-ageness" on the basis of the 
initial " over-ageness " of the beginners. In grade 7 A, Table 21 
records nearly the highest percentage of retardation ; whereas 
Table 24 shows almost the smallest percentage : 19.8 per cent of 
the present 7 A pupils as " over-age " when they entered school. 
On the other hand Table 24 tells us that the highest proportion, 
30.6 per cent of the present 7 B pupils, were above normal age 
at the time of their entrance to grade i B ; Table 21 records only 
39.8 per cent or the sixth from the highest percentage of present 
"over-age " pupils. 

The sex distribution of these initial starters is stated in Table 
25 and the graphic illustrations of the "over-age" boys and girls 
entering grade i B are shown on page 60 (Charts 11 a and lib). 

In total, 23.5 per cent of the girls as opposed to 22.4 per cent 
of the boys were above 6 years 11 months when they entered 
school. Just as the girls showed the largest percentages of re- 



58 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



w 2 



P 





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Normal 

Age 


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Pater son, N.J. 1,246 Cases 



59 



Above 

Normal 

Age 


c^8 




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C\J M 


6 NO 

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6o A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 






fin 



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Peterson, N.J. 1,246 Cases 



61 



tardation in the sixth and seventh grades (Table 22), in Table 
25 they also show more initial "over-ageness'' in these grades. 

Whereas the boys are retarded more in the fifth and sixth 
grades and least in the 7 B grade according to Table 22 ; in the 
eighth and the fifth grades and mostly in the 7 B grade, one notes 
the largest percentages above normal age at the time of school 
entrance (Table 25). Evidently late entrance with the boys is 
not so potent a cause of retardation as in the case of the girls. 
Charts 11 a and lib again call attention to the tendency toward 
greater variability on the part of the boys. 

The Incidence of Retardation 

Table 26 a represents in numbers the distribution of the 1,246 
Paterson school children according as they were or were not 
left back during their entire school life. Table 26 b reports the 
same, only the numbers are changed to per cent equivalents. 

TABLE 26a 
Five Schools. Aggregate 1,246 Cases 



Left Back 


5B 


5A 


6B 


6A 


7B 


7A 


8B 


8A 


None 


94 


75 


58 


91 


89 


74 


65 


60 


One 


32 


40 


42 


47 


58 


48 


46 


36 


Two 


19 


18 


30 


27 


29 


33 


25 


3 c 


Three 


17 


5 


9 


1 1 


7 


6 


9 


3 


Four or mere 


5 


I 


I 





3 


I 


2 





Total Left Back 


73 


64 


82 


85 


97 


88 


82 


69 


Total Case? 


167 


139 


140 


176 


186 


162 


147 


I2q 



With the exception of the fifth grades and the upper sixth, the 
mode expressing the frequency of non-promotion falls in the 
" one-time " group. The tendency of the pupils of Paterson who 
have reached the highest grades is to be left back once during 
their entire school life. Rather large percentages of pupils in 
all the grades of the grammar department, especially the high 
ones, are left back twice. In the lower grades a considerable 
number have repeated three times since they began school. 



62 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

TABLE 26b 

Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 



Left Back 


sB 


SA 


6B 


6A 


7B 


7A 


8B 


8A 




per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


None 


56 


54 


41 


52 


48 


46 


44 


47 


One 


19 


29 


30 


27 


31 


30 


31 


28 


Two 


1 1 


13 


21 


15 


16 


20 


17 


23 


Three 


10 


4 


6 


6 


4 


4 


6 


2 


Four 


3 


I 


I 





2 


I 


I 





Total Left Back 


44 


46 


59 


48 


52 


54 


56 


53 



The statement showing the sex of the promoted and non-pro- 
moted children now in the grammar classes is found in the next 
tables. The graphic illustrations compare the boys and girls 
of the eighth grade as to relative frequency of promotion and 
repetition. 

TABLE 27a 
Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During School Life 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


5B 


5A 


6B 


6A 


7B 


7A 


8B 


8A 


None 


43 
51 


42 


38 
20 


54 
3 7 


41 
48 


49 

25 


30 

35 


J7 
23 


One 


17 
15 


19 
21 


17 
25 


16 
31 


28 
30 


2(5 

22 


22 
24 


22 
14 


Two 


6 
13 


14 
4 


II 
19 


16 
II 


12 
17 


21 

12 


12 
13 


19 


Three 


10 

7 


/ 

4 


/ 
8 


3 
8 


5 
2 


I 

5 


8 




3 


Four 


I 

4 


I 






I 







I 

2 




I 



2 






Total Left Back 


34 
39 


35 
29 


29 

53 


35 
50 


46 
51 


4<? 

40 


J5 
47 


33 

36 


Total Cases 


77 
90 


77 
62 


67 
73 


89 

87 


<?7 
99 


P7 
65 


^5 
82 


70 
59 



Paterson, N . J . 1,246 Cases 



63 



TABLE 27b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 




5B 


5 A 


6B 


6A 


7B 


7A 


8B 


8A 


A V erase 
8B and 8 A 




per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


None 


55 
56 


8 

7 


54-5 
53 -2 


56.7 
27.4 


60 .y 

42.5 


47.1 
48.5 


49-5 

38-5 


46 .2 
42.7 


52.9 
39-0 


49.6 
41. 1 


One 


22 

16 


I 
7 


33-9 


25-4 
34-2 


18.0 
35-6 


32.2 


2(5.5 

33-8 


J.?. 5 
29-3 


3^-4 
23-7 


32.6 
27.0 


Two 


7 
14 


8 

4 


6.5 


16 .4 
26 .0 


16". 
12 .6 


13.8 
17.2 


2/.<5 

18.5 


18.5 

15-9 


^5-7 
32.2 


17.0 

22 .7 


Three 


13 

7 




8 


1-3 
6.5 


■r-5 
1 1 .0 


3-4 
9.2 


5-7 
2 .0 


1 .0 
7-7 


■r-5 
9.8 


0.0 

5-1 


0-7 

7.8 


Four 


4 


3 
4 


.0 


0.0 
r -4 


0.0 
.0 


1 .1 
2 .0 


0.0 
1-5 


0.0 
.0 


0.0 
2 .4 


0.0 
1 .4 


Total Left 
Back 


44 

43 


2 

3 


45-5 
46.8 


72 .6 


39-3 

57-5 


52.9 
51-5 


49-5 
61.5 


5J-^ 

57-3 


47.1 
61 .0 


5(^-4 
58.9 


5o 




50 


^^. 










45 






45. 

40 

35 

5o 

25 

ZO 

15 

10 










4o 
55 












3o 
















Z5 














to 
















15 
JO 


















5 










h. 














__ 


, 






1 













/Ko. 



O^e 



Thre.c/ Fo c 



Mor. 



ThreiO' four 



Chart 12 a. Eighth grade boys. 
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- 
ing school life 



Chart 12 b. Eighth grade girls. 
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- 
ing school life 



From the bottom row of Table 27 b one notes that the boys 
fail to be promoted much more freqtiently than the girls in nearly 
all the grades. In the eighth grades whereas 49.6 per cent of 
the girls were never left back during their entire school life, the 



64 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

percentage in the case of the boys is 41.1. On the other hand, 
50.4 per cent of the girls as opposed to 58.9 per cent of the boys 
were left back one or more times since their entrance in school. 

The girls however show a greater tendency to be left back 
once, the boys being "held back" in larger numbers, two, three, 
and four times. In grades 5 B and 7 B the distribution is quite 
similar to that in the district of New York City reported in 
Chapter II, page 35. The boys may be placed here at both ex- 
tremes of the distribution curve, the girls being about average. 
Measured then on the basis of the relative frequency of promo- 
tion and repetition, as read in all the grades tabulated, the girls 
of the Paterson schools are brighter than the boys. In Chart 
12 a more variation is apparent than in Chart 12 b. 

Tables 28 a. and 28 b show again in numbers and in per cents 
respectively the relative frequency of non-promotion and the 
particular grades in which such non-promotion occurs. 

TABLE 28a 
Grade Distribution of Non-Promotion in Aggregate 





8A 


8B 


7A 


7B 


6A 


6B 


sA 


sB 


4A 


4B 


3A 


3B 


2A 


2B 


lA 


iB 


Grand Total 


Grades 


No. 
Left 
Back 


Total 
Prom, 
and 
Non- 
prom. 


8A 


6 


5 


16 


14 


8 


9 


6 


6 


7 


4 


3 


4 


3 


3 


6 


5 


105 


165 


8B 




•10 


17 


10 


7 


12 


7 


14 


II 


9 


5 


10 


3 


8 


4 


4 


131 


106 


7A 






17 


12 


10 


10 


II 


13 


1 1 


8 


14 


S 


7 


5 


7 


6 


136 


210 


7B 








24 


IS 


12 


18 


14 


13 


II 


5 


11 


7 


7 


8 


4 


149 


238 


6A 










23 


20 


17 


10 


9 


9 


16 


10 


4 


4 


6 


6 


134 


225 


6B 












23 


12 


15 


14 


8 


12 


14 


7 


12 


8 


9 


134 


102 


SA 


















10 


18 
26 


13 
17 


9 
9 


13 
t7 


9 

14 


7 
19 


5 
II 


3 
If 


12 


95 
141 


170 


sB 






235 



Beginning with about three per cent as the average percentage 
of pupils now in the grammar grades who were left back in the 
first grades, there is a relatively steady increase from these grades 
till the eighth grades in the proportion of such non-promotions. 
The seventh grades in this system are unquestionably the select- 
ins: srrades and those who are fortunate enough to withstand 



Paterson, N.J. 1,246 Cases 



65 



the .strain here, proceed to the eighth grades where most all at 
the end of the "A" term are awarded the coveted diploma. 



TABLE 28b 

Same in Per Cents 

Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base 



Grades 


8A 


8B 


7A 


7B 

per 
cent 


6A 


6B 


5A 


sB 

per 
cent 


4A 


4B 


3A 


3B 


2A 


2B 


lA 


iB 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


8A 


3.f) 


3-0 


9-7 


8.5 


4.8 


S-5 


3-6 


3.6 


4-2 


2 


4 


I 


8 


2 


4 


I 


8 


I 


8 


3-6 


3 

2 
2 





8B 




S-i 


8.7 


S-i 


3-6 


6.1 


3-6 


7-1 


5-6 


4 


6 


2 


5 


S 


I 


I 


S 


4 


I 


2 .0 





7 A 






8.1 


5-7 
10. 1 


4.8 


4.8 


S-2 


6.2 


S-2 


3 


8 


6 


7 


2 


4 


3 


3 


2 


4 


3-3 


9 


7B 








6.3 


^■0 


7.6 


5-9 


S-.S 


4 


6 


2 


I 


4 


6 


2 


9 


2 


9 


3-4 


I 
2 


7 


6A 










10.2 


8.0 


7.6 


4-4 


4.0 


4 





7 


I 


4 


4 


I 


8 


I 


8 


2.6 


6 


6B 












12.0 


6.2 


7.8 


7-3 


4 


2 


6 


2 


7 


3 


3 


6 


6 


2 


4,2 


4 
4 

S 


7 


SA 














5-0 


10.6 


7.6 


S 


3 


7 


6 


5 


3 


4 


I 


2 


9 


1.8 


7 


sB 
















I I.O 


7.2 


3 


8 


7 


2 


6 





8 


I 


4 


7 


6.8 


I 


Aver. 


3.6 4.2 


8.8 


7.4 


6.1 


7-0 


S.8 


7-1 


5.8 


4 


I 


5 


2 


4 


7 


3 


5 


3 


4 


3-6 


3 


3 



Proceeding as in the previous chapters to a brief comparative 
study of grade retention, the failures in the 3 A and 3 B grades 
of the present 7 A and 7 B pupils as compared with the present 
5 A and 5 B pupils may be gleaned from Table 28 b. 



Grades. 



Grades. . . . 3A 3B 
per cent 

In 5 A grade 7.6 5.3 

In 5B grade 7.2 6.0 

Alcdiaii 6.6 



3 A 3B 

per cent 

In 7 A grade 6.7 2.4 

In 7B grade 2.1 4.6 

Median 3.5 

In the fifth grades about i in 15 was left back in the third 
grades. Of the present seventh grade pupils approximately i 
in 30 failed in these grades. 

Comparing now the eighth and seventh grades with the sixth 
and fifth grades on the basis of failure of promotion in the third 
grades the following mav be noted : 



Grades 3A 3B 

per cent 

In 8 A grade 1.8 2.4 

In 8B grade 2.5 5.1 

In 7 A grade 6.7 2.4 

In 7 B grade 2.1 4.6 

Median 2.45 



Grades .... 3A 3B 
per cent 

In 6 A grade 7.1 4.4 

In 6B grade 6.2 7.3 

In 5 A grade 7.6 ^^ .3 

In 5 B grade 7.2 6.0 

Aledian 6.65 



66 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

The chance then that a sixth grade or a fifth grade pupil was 
left back in the third grade is more than twice as great as is the 
case of a pupil known to have reached the seventh or the eighth 
grade. Only i in 40 of these upper grade grammar pupils re- 
peated the primary grade in cjuestion ; whereas the ratio of re- 
tention in the case of the fifth and the sixth grade pupils is 
about I to 15. 

Taking the averages of the "A" and "B" grades to count as 
the amount of retention in what would be a single yearly grade, 
the percentages are as follows : 

Grades: 



First 


Second Third Fourth Fifth 


Sixth Seventh Eighth 


3-4 


3-4 5-0 5-0 6.5 


6.6 8.0 4 .0 



. In no other city system is the steady gradual increase from the 
first till the eighth grade so marked as in the Paterson schools. 



CHAPTER V 



EAST ORANGE, N. J. 448 CASES 

The selection of the East Orange schools for study was 
l^rompted by the desire to get records from enough select schools 
to offset those obtained from the schools of the other cities at- 
tended largely by the poorer class of children. Only four schools 
in East Orange have the complete graded system extending 
through the grammar department. They have an approximate 
register of 500, 600, 550, 650 pupils, respectively. These schools 
were visited in March and April, 1910. 

The Migration of Pupils 
Small percentages of initial starters characterize the condition 
in the East Orange system. This is a result of the combined 
action of three main causes: the considerable migration from 
school to school in the city itself, also from other cities, and the 
tendency of the parents to send their children in their earlier 
years to private institutions with a view to have them trans- 
ferred later to the regular public schools. 



TABLE 29 
Per Cents of Initial Starters 



Schools 


Q 


R 


S 


T 


Average 


Grades 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


Eighth 


36 


43 


43 


34 


39-9 


Seventh 


33 


38 


24 


41 


33-8 


Sixth 


42 


33 


3 I 


26 


30 -4 


Fifth 


38 


33 


38 


66 


43-3 


Fourth 


52 


36 


53 


42 


45-7 


Average 


40 


3 7 


38 


42 


38. 3 



67 



68 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Only 38.3 per cent of those who are now in grades four to 
eight inclusive originally entered the schools in which they now 
attend. Although the larger percentages are apparent in the 
fourth and fifth grades this does not signify that the migratory 
tendency is becoming less active. Many of these lower grade 
initial starters will be eliminated in, or perhaps before, they reach 
the higher grades, and so these percentages will be reduced to at 
least the same level as those now recorded in the upper three 
classes. 

The Age-Grade Relations of the 448 Initial Starters 

In the following age-grade table the grammar grade pupils in- 
cluding those in the fourth grade are distributed according to 
their age at the time of entrance to their present grade. 



TABLE 30 
Four Schools. Age Distribution. Aggregate 448 Cases 



Grades 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


Total 


Abo 
ma 

No. 


ve Nor- 
1 Age 

Per 

cent 


Eighth 








5 


19 


40 


26 


12 


3 


105 


81 


77.1 


Seventh 






6 


9 


25 


22 


1 1 


I 




74 


59 


79-3 


Sixth 






12 


13 


15 


15 


2 






57 


45 


78.9 


Fifth 


I 


14 


35 


22 


9 


10 








91 


76 


83.5 


Fourth 


23 


35 


31 


22 


10 










121 


98 


81 .0 












Tot 


al 


448 


Cases 













From Table 30 one notes in the last column the percentages 
of "over-ageness" in the five grades. These figures are sur- 
prisingly high. The lower grades seem especially burdened with 
retarded pupils. Assuming 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive 
as the normal entrance age to the fourth grade, 81 per cent of 
the initial starters in this grade in the four schools are "over-age." 



East Orange, N. J. 44S Cases 



69 



In .the fifth grade adding one year to the theoretical age hmit 
assumed in the fourth grade, a still larger proportion of pupils 
are ahove tlie normal age. 

More pupils 16 and 17 years of age are found in the graduating 
classes of these " aristocratic " schools than in the schools of 
the cities previously treated. It is evident that the parents 
can afiford to permit their children to remain in school until they 
finish, no matter how long it takes them to accomplish the course. 
The same is likewise noticeable in the select schools of Plainfield, 
considered in the next chapter. 

Taking 10 years to 10 years 11 months as the normal age 
for the fourth grade, 1 1 years to 1 1 years 1 1 months, for the fifth 
grade, etc., these percentages of retarded pupils reduce as follows : 
Eighth grade, 39.0 per cent; sixth grade, 56.1 per cent; fifth 
grade, 45.1 per cent; fourth grade, 52.1 per cent. 

Distributing these retarded pupils according to sex, Table 31 
and Charts 13 a and 13 b show the desired comparison. 



TABLE 31 
Four Schools. Age-Grade Table Showing Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


Total 


Above Nor- 
mal Age 

Per 
No. cent 


Eighth 








2 

3 


10 
9 


17 

23 


16 
10 


7 

5 


7 

2 


53 
52 


4i\ 77-4 
40 76.9 


Seventh 






3 

3 


7 
2 


17 
8 


10 
12 


7 
4 




I 




44 

30 


34 

25 


77-3 
83-3 


Sixth 






6 
6 


9 

4 


7 
8 


7 
8 



2 






29 

28 


23 
22 


79-3 
78.6 


Fifth 



1 




5 


18 
17 


7 

15 


4 

5 


I 
9 








39 

52 


30 
46 


76.9 
88.5 


Fourth 


17 
6 


16 
19 


14 
17 


6 
16 


3 

7 










56 
65 


39 
59 


69.6 
90.8 


Total 


221 
227 


Girls 
Boys 





70 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Pe. re. e/n Ij. 








10 


r 






80 








1 1 


80 






70 






70 
4,0 


' L 




CO 






50 






50 






40 






40 






50 






30 






20 






20 






10 






10 






Cfac/&t 


-87 t 5 


4 


CraJ&5 S 1 i, 5 


4 


Ch. 


VET 13 a. Percenta 
tarded boys 


ges of 


re- 


Chart 13 b. Percentages of 
tarded girls 


re- 



The median percentage above normal age in the case of the 
boys is in the seventh grade, 83.3 per cent. In the case of the 
girls it is also found in the same grade with 77.3 per cent re- 
tarded. The boys are much more retarded than the girls in the 
fourth, fifth, and seventh grades of this system. In the other two 
grades, the ratios are about equal. The percentages of "over- 
age" boys as compared with the girls in the seventh and eighth 
grades reduce in greater proportion when the age limit is ex- 
tended in these grades up to 14 years and up to 15 years respec- 
tively. 

The graphic illustrations following Table 31 show the consider- 
able variability manifested by the retarded boys as against the 

TABLE 32 

Age Distribution of 448 Pupils at Time of Entrance to the 
First Grade 



Schools 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Total 


Above Normal Age 


No. 


Per cent 


Q 


13 


47 


28 


9 


I 


98 


38 


38.8 


R 


29 


52 


32 


7 


I 


121 


40 


33-^ 


s 


20 


49 


32 


14 





115 


46^ 


40 .0 


T 


20 


S3 


38 


2 


I 


114 


41 


35-9 


Total 


82 


201 


130 


32 


3 


448 


165 


36.8 



East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases /i 

comparatively even distribution of the "over-age" girls in grades 
four through eight. 

Table 32 is a statement of the ages of the 448 pupils when they 
entered school. 

Only 36.8 per cent of the 448 pupils whose records were taken 
were seven years or more when they entered the first school 
grade. The six-year column evidently in all the four schools 
holds the modal entrance group. The schools are seen to vary 
only slightly in the matter of "over-age" initial starters, the me- 
dian being approximately 37 per cent. 

The distribution of pupils with respect to school, present 
grade, and initial entrance age is shown in the next table. 

In this table showing the age-grade groups of the initial start- 
ers one notes that whereas the largest percentages of present 
grade " over-ageness " as read in Table 30 are recorded in the 
fourth and fifth grades, here too the minimum and maximum 
amounts are registered as above the assumed normal age for 
these same grades. Again the reader is cautioned not to take 
these latter percentages in certain explanation of the former. 
Although the groups treated are the same, the individuals who 
were " over-age " may be by no means the same individuals who 
were "over-age" in their present grades. Comparing Tables 
32 and 33 there seems to be more evidence of deviation from 
the median percentage above normal age in the five grades m 
the latter, where the pupils are distributed according to grades, 
than in the former table wherein merely school totals are re- 
corded. 

Relative sex comparisons of the ages of the initial starters 
when they entered school follow on pages 73 and 74. The ap- 
pended diagrams compare only those boys and girls who were 
above 6 years 11 months when they were admitted to the first 

grade. 

The percentage of boys now in the grammar and fourth grades 
who were "over-age" on admission to the first grade is a trifle 
more than the corresponding percentage of girls. In the one 
case it is 37.9 per cent; in the other. 35.7 per cent. The boys 
at present are retarded in great numbers in the fourth grade 
(see Table 31). From Table 34 it appears that a very small 
percentage of these fourth grade boys were "over-age" when 
thev entered school. In the fifth grade, however, whereas 88.5 



72 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



fe 



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East Orange, N.J. 448 Cases 



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Total 
Cases 




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in 
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.4 Special Study of the Incidence of Retardatioi 



Co 




to 


55 




55 


50 




50 






45 


45 




















40 


1 


4o 






















55 
30 






55 






30 












25 






25 










ZO 




20 






1 


15 




15 




10 




10 




5 




5 




Croc:/i 


J5 3 1 


G 


5 


4 


Crod&s 9 1 


(= 


5 


4- 



Chart 14 a. " Over-age " boys 
entering first grade 



Chart 14 b. " Over-age " girls 
entering first grade 



per cent of the boys are at present retarded, 55.8 per cent of this 
same group of boys were "over-age" in the first grade. The per- 
centages of "over-age" girls of the sixth and seventh grades are 
larger than is the case with the boys in these same grades. In 
the other grades the reverse is true. The records for all the 
grades show the boys to be more variable than the girls. 

The Incidence of Retardation 
The following tables outline the repeaters and non-repeaters 
during their entire school life with respect to present grade dis- 
tribution. Table 35 a records the actual numbers of promoted 
and non-promoted children ; Table 35 b, the per cents. 

TABLE 35a 
Four Schools. Aggregate 448 Cases 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


71 


56 


35 


43 


66 


One 


28 


28 


15 


26 


30 


Two 


20 


7 


6 


5 


9 


Three 


2 





I 








Total Left Back 


50 


35 


22 


31 


39 


Total Cases 


121 


91 


57 


74 


105 



East Orange, N.J. 44S Cases 



TABLE 35b 
Same Coxverted to Per Cent Equivalents 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


59 


62 


61 


58 


63 


One 


23 


31 


26 


35 


29 


Two 


17 


8 


1 1 


7 


9 


Three 


2 





2 








Total Left Back 


41 


38 


39 


42 


37 



In East Orange a rather anomalous situation presents itself. 
Table 30 proves the excessive extent of retardation in the schools 
studied. Table 33 shows a relatively small amount of " over-age- 
ness " of these initial starters at the time of their entrance to the 
first grade. Finally, Table 35 b to perplex the problem records 
exceedingly high percentages of regular promotion : 59 per cent in 
the fourth grade ; 62 per cent in the fifth ; 61 per cent in the 
sixth ; 58 per cent in the seventh ; and 63 per cent in the eighth. 
In each case the mode falls in the uppermost row. In the fifth 
grade where retardation registered a maximum of 83.5 per cent, 
the percentage of pupils never left back (Table 35 b) is 62 per 
cent; with 31 per cent repeating once, and 8 per cent, twice. 
A possible explanation of this exceptional condition would be 
found in complete age-grade tables for the school year 1909-10. 
Unfortunately no such tables are published in any of the super- 
intendent's reports. 

The regularly promoted boys and girls and those repeating 
once, twice, and three times throughout the entire school course 
are distributed in Tables 36 a and 36 b. 

Table 36 b states that 58.5 per cent of the 53 girls reported in 
the eighth grade were promoted regularly since their entrance 
in school; 34 per cent were left back once; and 7.5 per cent, 
twice. Of the 52 eighth grade boys, 67.3 per cent were never 
left back; 23.1 per cent repeated once; and 9.6 per cent, twice, 
during their entire school life. 

Thus measured the boys show a greater range of mental ability 
than the girls, the latter occupying the average position ; the 



76 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

former, the two extremes of the normal distributory curve. ( See 
Charts 15 a and 15 b.) 

In grades 4, 5, 6, and 7, however, the girls show by far larger 
percentages of regular promotion, than the boys. Reading from 

TABLE S6a 
Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During Entire School Life 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


37 
34 


27 
29 


20 
15 


30 
13 


31 

35 


One 


10 
18 


II 

17 


7 
8 


II 

15 


iS 
12 


Two 


9 

II 


6 


I 

5 


3 
2 


4 
5 


Three 



2 





I 













Total Left Back 


19 

31 


12 


9 
13 


14 

17 


22 
17 


Total Cases 


56 
65 


39 

52 


29 
28 


44 
30 


53 

52 



TABLE 36b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 




per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


66.1 

52.3 


6p .2 

55-8 


6g .0 

53-6 


68.2 

43-3 


58.5 
67-3 


One 


ly.g 
27.7 


28.2 
32.7 


24.1 
28.6 


25 .0 
50 .0 


34-0 
23 .1 


Two 


16. 1 
16 .9 


2.6 
II-5 


3-4 
17.9 


6.8 
6.7 


7-5 
9.6 


Three 


0.0 
3-1 


.u 
.0 


3-4 
.0 


0.0 
.0 


0.0 
.0 


Total Left Back 


33 -Q 
47-7 


30.8 
44.2 


31.0 
46.4 


31.8 
56.7 


41-5 
32.7 



East Orange. N. J. 44S Cases 



P^rc- 


^nl3. 


P^r'^e.nds. 


45 




(.5 


GO 




(oO 










55 




55 






50 




50 






45 




4-5 






^c 




4o 






35 




55 














Jo 




50 






^5 






Z5 






Zo 






Zo 




15 




)5 






10 




5 






5 















Chart 15 a. Eighth Chart 15 b. Eightli 

gracle boys. grade girls. 

Repeaters and non-repeaters during school life 



the bottom row of Table 36 b one notes that in all grades ex- 
cepting the highest the boys repeat much oftener than the girls. 

The grade distributions of the repeaters in the grammar and 
fourth grades of the Ea.st Orange schools (Tables 37 a and 37 b) 
show the relative frequencies in number and per cent respectively. 



TABLE 37a 
Grade Distribution of Non-Promotion in Aggregati^ 







c 

> 

OJ 




Si 


X, 


'x. 


c 



m 


u 

£ 


Grand Total 


Grades 


No. Left 
Back 


Total 
Prom, and 
Non- 
Prom. 


Eighth 


5 


17 


8 


5 


5 


3 


I 


4 


48 


114 


Seventh 




9 


6 


7 


5 


2 


3 


4 


36 


79 


Sixth 






9 


5 


3 


4 


4 


5 


30 


65 


Fifth 








10 


7 


7 


10 


8 


42 


98 


Fourth 










17 


22 


16 


19 


74 


145 



78 



A Special SUidy of the Incidence of Retardation 



TABLE 37b 

Same in Per Cents 

L'sing Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base 



Grades 


Eighth 


Seventh 


Sixth 


Fifth 


Fourth 


Third 


Second 


First 




per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


Eighth 


4-4 


14.9 


7.0 


4-4 


4-4 


2.6 


0.9 


3-5 


Seventh 




II .4 


7.6 


8.9 


6.3 


2-5 


3-8 


5-1 


Sixth 






13.8 


7-7 


4.6 


6.2 


6.2 


7-7 


Fifth 








10 .2 


7.2 


7.2 


10 .2 


8.2 


Fourth 










II. 7 


15-2 


II .0 


13. 1 


Aver. 


4-4 


13-5 


8.9 


7.6 


7-4 


7.6 


6.8 


8.0 



From the averages obtained, with due regard to the proper 
totals of promoted and non-promoted in grades 4 to 8 inclusive, 
one learns that the seventh grade holds clearly the maximum 
record of retention. Eliminating the first grade, the grades from 
the second till the eighth increase in percentages of "hold-overs," 
progressively to the seventh, in which grade an amazingly large 
percentage of non-promotion is recorded. A considerable drop 
quite as remarkable is manifest in the final grade. Unquestion- 
ably in this small city school system the seventh grade is the 
potent selective force in deciding on the- competent ones fitted 
to enter the graduating class. 

Taken from Table 37 b the following percentages compare 
grade retention : 

Third Grade 
per cent 

In eighth grade 2.6 

In sixth grade 6.2 

In fourth grade i5-2 

Whereas i pupil in 38 of those now in the eighth grade was 
left back in the third grade, for those in the sixth grade the 
ratio is i to 16 and for those in the fourth grade about i to 7. 



t.ast Orange, N.J. 448 Cases 79 

Again comparing those now in the eighth and the seventh 
grades who were left back in the third grade, with those now 
in the fifth and the fourth grades, the distribution is as follows : 





Third Grade 




Third Grade 




per cent 




per cent 


In eighth grade. . . 


2.6 


In fifth grade . . . . 


7.2 


In seventh grade . 


2.5 


In fourth grade . . 


15.2 


Median 


2.55 


Median 


II .2 



The probable chance then that a fifth or a fourth grade pupil 
was left back in the third grade is at least four times as great 
as in the case of the eighth or the seventh grade pupil. 

The indication from Table 37 b that in the grammar grades 
excepting the graduating class, the pupils are invariably retained 
more frequently in their present grade than in the previous 
grades is evidence that a gradual eliminating process is at work 
in grades five and on, culminating in the difficult seventh. In 
this grade so much pressure is brought to bear on the pupils 
that about every seventh one is forced to repeat or sufifer elim- 
ination. 



CHAPTER VI 
PLAINFIELD, N. J. 485 CASES 

The Plainfield system is distinctive in that it segregates the 
sixth, seventh, and eighth year pupils in central schools. The 
lower grades are distributed regularly in the other schools. The 
tables in this chapter show then the distributions with respect 
to grade only. 

The city of Plainfield was included in this special study be- 
cause it was the only system situated within convenient dis- 
tance of New York City in which complete history cards were 
obtainable. These individual record-forms of the pupils dating 
back to the time when they entered the first grade of the school 
show accurately the regular promotions and the incidence of grade 
repetition. The writer, however, visited each class room of the 
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades and questioned the pupils 
individually as in the other cities. Their written answers were 
then carefully checked up by the official record cards and the er- 
rors corrected. It is significant to mention here, this being the 
one city wherein it was possible to check up all the records, 
that the pupils made comparatively few mistakes in answering 
the formal questions. Such errors as were found, were mostly 
in reply to the question asking the pupils to state the number of 
times they were left back during their entire school life and 
the grades in which they were retained. The fact is that in 
nearly every case where the individuals' own statements were 
unwittingly false concerning the latter in particular, their mem- 
ory seemed to waver only in the case of the primary grades. 
Quite often the pupil himself when in doubt as to his failure in 
an upper grade was reminded either by his classmates or perhaps 
by the teacher. 

Again, wherever it was found that the pupils deliberately 
misstated the facts, their records as read from the individual 
history cards were invariably somewhat worse than they cared 
to admit. For example, when pupils replied that they were left 

80 



Plainficld, N . J . 48 fi Cases 81 

back a given number of times, on checking up their statements 
it was found that in no case were they left back less than they 
stated. On the other hand, in quite a number of instances their 
history cards showed one or more retentions above the number 
admitted bv them in class. 



The Migration of Pupils 

The per cents of initial starters are distributed as follows in 
the grammar grades of the Plainfield schools : 

TABLE 38 

Per Cents of Inttial Starters 





Eighth 


Seventh 


Sixth 


Fifth 


Average 


Grammar Grades 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 




56 


53 


57 


56 


56 



The percentages in Table 38 are high when compared with 
those of the other four cities because of the prevailing method 
of centralizing the upper grade pupils as previously explained. 
All those pupils who entered the first grade of any public school 
in Plainfield proper were recorded in this particular city ; where- 
as in the other cities only those who entered the first grade of 
the school in which they now attend or in its official "feeding" 
school were rated as initial starters and their records sought. 
From Table 38 one reads that 56 per cent of the pupils now in 
the grammar grades of the Plainfield schools entered the first 
grade of one of the schools in that city. 

The Age-Grade Relations of the 485 Initial Starters 

The ages of the 485 pupils when they entered their present 
grades are given in Table 39. 

Assuming 10 years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the nor- 
mal entrance age to the fifth grade ; 1 1 years to 11 years 1 1 
months inclusive for the sixth grade, etc., the percentages of 
"over-age" grammar grade pupils are shown in the last column 
of Table 39. The largest proportion of retarded pupils is found 
in the eighth grade. The percentages in all four grades are 
rather hig'h. 



82 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

TABLE 39 
Grammar Grades. Age Distribution. Aggregate 485 Cases 



Grades 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Total 


Above Nor- I 
mal Age 

Per 

No. cent 


Eighth 








I 


17 


29 


21 


13 


3 


I 


85 


67 


78.8 


Seventh 






5 


i1 


36 


32 


12 


5 


I 




128 


86 


67 .2 


Sixth 


I 


2 


3fc 


59 


34 


22 


2 


I 






157 


118 


75-2 


Fifth 


6 


25 


35 


19 


21 


5 


4 








115 


84 


73-0 


Total 




485 


Cases 



























Counting only those as retarded who exceed the assumed nor- 
mal age by one or more years in the respective grades the pro- 
portion of "over-age" pupils would be : Eighth grade, 44.7 per 
cent; seventh grade, 39.1 per cent; sixth grade, 37.6 per cent; 
fifth grade, 42.6 per cent. 

The sex distribution of the 485 initial starters respecting age- 
grade relations is to be noted in the following table and graphic 

illustrations : 

TABLE 40 

Grammar Grades. Age-Grade Table Showing Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



























Above Nor- 


























mal Age 


Grades 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Total 






























Per 


























No. 


cent 


Eighth 








I 


10 


13 


13 


7 


2 


1 


47 


36 


76.6 













7 


16 


8 


6 


I 





38 


31 


81.6 


Seventh 






2 


21 


ri 


■r? 


6 


3 


o\ 


do 


37 


61 .7 








3 


16 


23 


17 


6 




I 




68 


49 


72.1 


Sixth 





2 


11 


3J 


17 


9 





I 






7J 


55 


^/.7 




I 





25 


28 


17 


13 


2 









86 


60 


69.8 


Fifth 


3 


13 


13 


10 


8 


I 


1 








49 


33 


^7 -J 




3 


12 


22 


9 


13 


4 


2 








66 


SI 


77-3 














Total 




227 
258 


Girls 
Boys 

















Plain field, N. J . 48 j Cases 



83 



fhrc^e" 


^/3 


Pe-rcje>nii. 






gP 






80 












1 


10 

feo 








70 




1 1 








1 


to 








1 


50 




50 




40 




45 




^0 




30 




•Zo 




Zo 




10 




1 





Chart i6 a. Percentages Chart i6 b. Percentages 
of retarded boys of retarded girls 

The boys in grades eight, seven, and five are more retarded 
tlian the girls. Whereas in the sixth grade 81.7 per cent of the 
girls are "over-age," the boys record only 69.8 per cent. Allow- 
ing one year on the assumed theoretical age-limit for this grade, 
these percentages would change to 38.0 per cent in the case of 
the girls and to 37.2 per cent for the boys. The modal age for 
the fifth grade girls and boys is evidently 11 years to 11 years 
II months inclusive; for the sixth grade, 12 years to 12 years 
II months inclusive, etc. Assuming these age-limits the girls 
show 40.4 per cent with an average deviation of 2.95 as the me- 
dian percentage of retardation for the four grades, the median 
for the boys being 38.85 per cent, A. D. 2.0. The girls of the 
grammar grades in this school system are more variable than the 
boys in the matter of present "over-ageness." 



Age Distribution of 



TABLE 41 

|.8s Pupils at Time of Entrance to 
First Grade 





















Above Nor- 




















mal Age 


Ages 


4 


=; 


6 


7 


8 





10 


Total 
























Per 




















No. 


cent 


Grammar Grades 


2 


79 


249 


1 1 1 


29 


12 


3 


485 


155 


32.0 



The 485 pupils entering the initial grade in any of the Plain- 
field schools are distributed in the above table according to their 
ages at the time of such entrance. One hundred and fifty-five 



84 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

of these children or 32 per cent were "over-age" when they be- 
gan school. The modal entrance age is clearly 6 years o months 
to 6 years 11 months inclusive. 

The next table records the age-grade distribution of these 
initial starters classified according to present grade. 

TABLE 42 

Age-Grade Distribution of 485 Pupils at Time of Entrance 
TO First Grade 





















Above Nor- 




















mal Age 


Ages 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 





10 


Total 
























Per 




















No. 


cent 


Grades 






















Eighth 


I 


24 


35 


19 


5 


I 





85 


25 


29.4 


Seventh 





32 


66 


24 


3 


3 





128 


30 


23-4 


Sixth 


I 


12 


93 


36 


13 


2 





157 


51 


32.5 


Fifth 





II 


55 


32 


8 


6 


3 


115 


49 


42.6 


Total 


2 


79 


249 


III 


29 


12 


3 


485 


15s 


32 -o 



The lower grammar grades show considerably more initial 
"over-ageness" than the upper grades. From Table 39 one notes 
that the percentages of retardation at present in the two lower 
as compared with the two higher classes approximately aver- 
age the same. 

The classification in the following age-grade table (Table 43) 
shows the sex distribution of the initial starters. 

Of the 258 boys whose records were taken in Plainfield, 78 
or 30.2 per cent were seven years or more when they entered 
the first grade; whereas of the 227 girls yy or 33.9 per cent 
were above normal age at that time. In the eighth grade and 
especially in the fifth grade the girls show more initial "over- 
ageness" than the boys. Concerning the percentages of present 
grade retardation as read in Table 40, the boys iii both fifth 
and eighth grades record the larger proportions. The greater 
variability among the girls as illustrated in Charts 16 a and 16 b 
is perhaps a result of the similar tendency manifest at school 
entrance. 



Plainfidd, N . J . 4<Sj Cases 



TABLE 43 

Age-Grade Sex Distribution of 4S5 Pupils at Time of 
Entrance to First Grade 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Ages 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Total 


Abov 
mal 

No. 


e Nor- 
Age 

Per 
cent 


Grades 

Eighth 


I 



12 
12 


19 
16 


13 
6 


2 




I 






47 
38 


15 
10 


31 .g 
26.3 


Seventh 






16 
16 


31 


10 
14 


1 
2 


2 

I 






do 
68 


13 
^7 


21 .J 
■25 -o 


Sixth 




I 


6 
6 


42 

51 


19 


6 

7 



2 






7^ 
86 


2J 
28 


32.6 


Fifth 







1 
8 


20 


^9 

13 


4 
4 


2 

4 


/ 


49 
66 


26 
23 


34.8 


Total 


I 
I 


37 
42 


112 
137 


59] 13 
52 16 


4 
8 


I 
2 


227 
258 


77 
7!^ 


30.2 



50 



45 
40 
55 
5o 

15 



45 

55 



•^nts. 

























LMr^e/e^ O 



Chart 17 a. " Over-age " 
boys entering first grade 



C,n3c/e,£ 8 1 i, S 

Chart 17 b. "" Over-age " 
girls entering first grade 



Tpie Incidence of Retardation 

Tables 44 a and 44 b inJicate in aggregate and in per cent 
respectively the present grade distribution of repeaters. 

It appears from .Tables 44 a and 44 b that of the 85 eighth 
grade pupils recorded, only 9 per cent were never left back during 
their entire school life ; 48 per cent were left back once ; ^2 per 



86 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



cent twice ; and lo per cent three times. These extraordinary 
percentages need explanation. Until four years ago the Plain- 
field schools had in reality though not officially a nine year sys- 
tem. Children entered a so-called lower first class, remained 
there a year, and then advanced to the upper first class, a yearly 
grade also. Only the exceptionally bright w^ere permitted to 
advance to the second grade after spending one year in the ini- 
tial grade. This arrangement was abolished quite recently. The 
records, however, of the present grammar grade pupils are af- 

TABLE 44a 
Grammar Grades. Aggregate 485 Cases 



Left Back 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


32 


44 


25 


8 


One 


51 


59 


52 


41 


Two 


22 


38 


31 


27 


Three 


9 


14 


13 


9 


Four 


I 


I 


6 





Five 





I 


1 





Total Left Back 


83 


113 


103 


77 


Total Cases 


115 


157 


128 


85 


TAE 
Same Converted to 


5LE 44b 
Per Cen 


t Equiva 


LENTS 




Left Back 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


28 


28 


20 


9 


One 


44 


38 


41 


48 


Two 


19 


24 


24 


32 


Three 


8 


9 


1° 


10 


Four 


I 


I 


5 





Five 





I 


I 





Total Left Back 


72 


72 


80 


91 



Plainfield, N. J. 4SJ Cases 



87 



fected in consequence. The superintendent now insists that the 
teachers record all the pupils who remained in the first grade 
more than one year as having repeated that grade. Advance- 
ment from lower to upper first grade is not regarded as a pro- 
motion in such cases where the pupil remained over a year 
in these classes. In the majority of cases when the writer 
checked up the records of the pupils who claimed not to have 
been left back since school entrance, it was found that the his- 
tory cards reported a non-promotion in the first grade. These 
latter records being officially sanctioned by the superintendent 
it was thought best to employ them rather than those gathered 
in the class rooms from the pupils. Naturally in all the gram- 
mar grades one notes that the tendency of non-promotion dur- 
ing school life is recorded in the "one-time" group. In all prob- 
ability eliminating the first grade repeaters the mode would fall 
in the top row. 

Classifying the repeaters and non-repeaters according to sex, 
the following tables and charts show the distributions : 



TABLE 45a 
Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During School Life 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


None 


16 
16 


24 
20 


12 
13 


5 
3 


One 


22 
29 


24 

3 5 


23 
29 


21 
20 


Two 


8 
14 


13 

25 


17 
14 


/5 
12 


Three 


3 
6 


9 

5 


6 

7 


6 
3 


Four 




I 


■/ 




I 
5 






Five 









I 









Total Left Back 


33 
53 


47 
66 


48 

55 


42 

3 5 


Total Cases 


49 
66 


71 
86 


60 
68 


47 
38 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

TABLE 45b 
Same Converted to Per Cent Equivalents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Left Back 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Eighth 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


None 


32-7 
24.2 


33-8 
23-3 


20 .0 
19. 1 


10 .6 
7-9 


One 


44-9 
43-9 


33-8 
40 .7 


38.3 
42 .6 


44-7 
52.6 


Two 


16.5 
21.2 


18.3 
29.1 


28.3 
20 .6 


31.6 


Three 


6.1 
9.1 


12.7 


70.0 

10.3 


12.8 
7-9 


Four 


.0 

^ -5 


1 .4 
.0 


1-7 
7-4 


0.0 

.0 


Five 


0.0 
.0 


.0 

1 .2 


1-7 
.0 


0.0 
.0 


Total Left Back 


67-3 
80.3 


66.2 
76.7 


<?0.0 

So. 9 


92.1 



yls 



55 
5o 
4-5 
4o 
55 
30 
Z5 
Zo 
15 



/Ko/7c 



0/7<3- TkVO 



Xhr 



55 



4o 










35 








50 








^5 






20 






15 












1 


10 




1 


5 





/yone 



Chart 18 a. Eighth grade Chart 18 b. Eighth grade 
boys. Repeaters and non- girls. Repeaters and- non- 
repeaters during school life repeaters during school life 

The eighth grade girls of the Plainfield schools show at once 
better records of regular promotion and the larger percentages 
of more frequent repetition. 



I'lainficld, N. J. -/(S'5 Cases 



89 



The boys and girls indicate a modal tendency of repeating 
once during their entire school life. In the matter of frequency 
of non-promotion, the boys are more variable than the girls. 
(Compare Charts 18 a and 18 b.) 

In all the grammar grades the following is noted : That the 
girls are more often regularly promoted ; that the girls are less 
frequently held back once, the median in the case of the girls 
in the "one-time" row being 41.5 per cent, in the case of the boys, 
43.3 per cent ; that the girls repeat less often twice, and more 
often three times. The few repeaters four and five times do 
not justify sex comparison. 

The results of the early system of grading previously ex- 
])lained are shown plainly in the next two tables outlining the 
incidence of retardation of those repeaters who are now in 
the central schools including the fifth grade pupils. 



TABLE 46a 
Grade Distribution of Non-Promotion in Aggregate 





tuO 


Hi 

> 
■J~i 


CO 




A 

D 


t-. 

'a 
H 


c 



m 


4J 




Grand Total 


Grades 


No. 
Left 
Back 


Total 
Prom, 
and 
Non- 
prom. 


Eighth 


4 


26 


14 


13 


. 7 


8 


10 


40 


122 


130 


Seventh 




29 


38 


15 


14 


II 


-i-}. 


62 


182 


207 


Sixth 






37 


24 


20 


15 


16 


74 


186 


230 


Fifth 








24 


21 


10 


9 


62 


126 


158 



Reading from the right in the bottom row of Table 46 b (page 
90), 32.8 per cent of the total promoted and non-promoted gram- 
mar grade pupils were left back in the first grade ; 6.6 per cent in 
the second grade; 6.1 per cent in the third; 8.6 per cent in the 
fourth; 10.5 per cent in the fifth; 15.7 per cent in the sixth; 
16.3 per cent in the seventh; and 3.1 per cent in the eighth. 
These figures, not considering the first grade, indicate a progres- 
sive increase from the second grade through the seventh. The 
sixth grade school would seem to function as the initial clear- 



90 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



ing house for those pupils unfitted to take up the higher class 
work. The successful sixth graders pass on to undergo an- 
other and at the same time more severe selective strain in the 
seventh grade. Those that survive this final ordeal enter the 
comparatively easy final grade. Only 3.1 per cent of the present 
pupils of the eighth grade failed therein. 



TABLE 46b 

Same in Per Cents 
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base 



Grades 


Eighth 


Seventh 


Sixth 


Fifth 


Fourth 


Third 


Second 


First 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


per 
cent 


Eighth 


3-1 


20 .0 


10.8 


10 .0 


5-4 


6.2 


7-7 


30.8 


Seventh 




14 .0 


18.4 


7.2 


6.8 


5-3 


6.3 


30.0 


Sixth 






16. 1 


10 .4 


8.7 


6.5 


7.0 


32.2 


Fifth 








15-2 


^Z-i 


6-3 


5-7 


39-2 


Aver. 


,3-1 


16.3 


15-7 


10.5 


8.6 


6.1 


6.6 


32.8 



In Table 46 b, on comparing the pupils now in the eighth, 
seventh, sixth, and fifth grades who repeated the third grade, 
little variation is apparent. 

Third Grade 
per cent 

In eighth grade 6.2 

In seventh grade 5.3 

In sixth grade 6.5 

In fifth grade 6.3 

Median 6.25 

The chances of any of the pupils of the grammar grades 
having been left back in the third grade are about the same. 
The ratio is i to 16. 

The same holds true on comparing those in the eighth and 
seventh with those in the sixth and fifth taken together respec- 
tively. In the fourth grade, however, the fifth and sixth grade 
pupils have on the average failed twice as frequently as the 
seventh and eighth grade pupils. 



Plainfield, N. J. 48 ^ Cases 91 

The special treatment of retardation in this and the preceding 
chapters being Hmited to the study of the so-called initial starters, 
it is unfortunate that in the city of Plainfield where the full his- 
tory cards are recorded that only 485 cases were obtainable. 
One notes in some of the tables showing the age-grade relations, 
promotion and non-promotion statistics, and the accompanying 
sex distributions, violations of certain tendencies gleaned from 
the tables of the previous systems. It may be that Plainfield 
is rather different from the other cities, or on the other hand, 
the number of cases being somewhat meagre may possibly ac- 
count for the odd distributions. However, in Table 46 b the 
general tendency relative to the difficulty of the various grades 
indicates the same scale of increase from the second through 
the seventh erade. 



CHAPTER VII 



SUMMARY 

GRAMMAR GRADE PUPILS. 3,865 CASES 

The records of the initial starters in the school systems tabu- 
lated in the foregoing chapters indicate definite tendencies. The 
summary is confined to the cases in the grammar grades only. 
Table 47 indicates in number the sex distribution of the pupils 
in the five cities visited. 

TABLE 47 
Actual Number of Cases Investigated 

Personal Study of 3,865 Initial Starters in the Gramirar Grades of 
Schools Selected at Random in FivE Cities 



Cities 


Schools 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


East Orange, N. J. 


4 


162 


165 


327 


Pla infield, N. J. 


4 


258 


227 


485 


Elizabeth, N. J. 


5 


422 


447 


869 


New York City, N. Y. (One 
school district.) 


6 


474 


464 


938 


Paterson, N. J. 


5 


617 


629 


I ,246 


Total 


24 


1,933 


i>932 


3,865 



Eliminating the fourth grade cases, the most number of records 
were obtained from Paterson, the least from East Orange. Bv 
mere chance the boys and girls were found almost evenly dis- 
tributed. Of the total 3,865 initial starters in the twenty- four 
schools, 1,933 were boys and 1,932, girls. 

The Migration of Pupils 

The per cents of initial starters in the grammar grades based 
on the current register at the time of visitation are shown in 
Table 48 and in graphic illustration, Chart 19. 

Q2 



Summary 



93 



TABLE 48 
Per Cents of Initial Starters in Grammar Grades 



Grades 


SB 


SA 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


5B 


5A 


Aver, of 

Gross 

Per Cents 


Cities 
New York 


43-7 


3 7-0 


3S.5 


32.0 


44-7 


41.2 


45-5 


52.0 


41.9 


1 40-4 ! 


1 35-3 1 


1 43-0 i 


1 48-8 1 




Paterson' 


48.3 1 51.0 
1 49-7 1 


47-4 1 S5-4 
1 51-4 1 


50-3 1 40.1 
i 45-2 i 


49-1 1 50-3 
1 49-7 ! 


49.0 


Elizabeth 


32-9 


33-6 


3 7-0 


51-5 


38.8 


Pla infield 


56 .0 


53 •° 


57-0 


36 .0 


55-5 


East Orange 


39-9 


33-8 


30-4 


43-3 


3^-9 


Mcdiatis 


40.4 


35-3 


43-0 


49-7 


41.9 



iThe order of grades in Paterson is: 8A, 8B, 7A, 7B, 6A, 6B, sA, 5B. 



Tercent Z ^ h % 10 



50 60 

I' I ' I ' I' 



Elui-beth 
NeuYorK 
VeLtenon 
Vfiivfieli 




Chart 19. Approximate percentages of initial starters in 
grammar grades 

The median per cents in the five cities show that 40.4 per cent 
of the registered eighth grade pupils entered the schools in which 
they now attend; 35.3 per cent in the case of the seventh 
grade; 43.0 per cent in the sixth grade; and 49.7 per cent in 
the fifth grade. The median of the averages of gross per cents 
in all the grammar grades is 41.9 per cent. That is, more than 
half of the present grammar grade ptipils either migrated to 
the schools in which they now attend, from other schools in 



94 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



the community or elsewhere, and were admitted by transfer, or 
they entered their present schools in some grade later than the 
first as new admissions. 

Obviously, to take the average percentage instead of the me- 
dian would be incorrect in view of the situation in Plainfield. 
(See Chapter VI, page 8i.) Note that the New York schools 
register the tendency in the eighth, seventh, and sixth grades. 

One may safely say that less than 50 per cent of the gram- 
mar grade children of these city school systems have been under 
the entire charge of their present schools from the first grade 
up. In Chart 19 the relative comparison of systems in this re- 
spect is plainly evident. Paterson, in which city retardation 
is less frequent as compared with any of the other cities, has at 
the same time a larger percentage of initial starters in its gram- 
mar department. The city of Plainfield, for reasons previously 
stated, is not considered. 

Age-Grade Relations 

Concerning the 3,865 grammar grade initial starters, Table 
49 shows in hundredths the retardation by grades. 

TABLE 49 
Retardation in Per Cents in Grammar Grades 



Grades 


8B 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


sB 


5A 


Cities 
New York 


66.3 

1 7c 


76.9 
■9 1 


84.4 
1 8c 


7.=;.8 

.1 1 


85-5 
1 76 


67.6 

■3 1 


84.8 

1 7S 


71.7 

■5 1 


Paterson 


48.1 I 33-3 
40.2 1 


51.2 1 39.8 
! 45-1 I 


58-0 1 44-3 


63-3 1 3.v9 


1 51-9 i 


1 48.4 1 


Elizabeth 


61.5 


72.7 


78.0 


84.5 


Plainfield 


78.8 


67 .2 


75-2 


73 -o 


East Orange 


77. T 


79-3 


78.9 


83.5 


Medians 


70.9 


72.7 


76.3 


78.5 



Summary 



95 



Tercent IO2O304OS0(>010S0l00 10 20304050 60 IPSO l0 203040S0(,0mC IJ^^?^9^i<^f'9'}^^'^ 



Grades|r''''V->V^'"'"' 




y:x?^ 





'■■■■•■■■■■■■• 



Chart 20. Percentages of retardation in grammar grades ; assuming 

10 years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the normal entrance age 
to the fifth grade 

To permit of comparison with the other cities, in New York 
City and Paterson the half-yearly grades are averaged in the 
following manner : For example, from Chapter II, page 22, 
one learns that 55, 8 B pupils and 50. 8 A pupils are above 
normal age. The total numbers of cases in these grades are 
83 and 65 respectively. The sum 50 + 55 = 105 is divided by 
the sum 83 + 65 = 148 to obtain 70.9 per cent, the average per- 
centage of retardation in the eighth grade. 

The median percentages of retardation in the grammar grades, 
assuming 10 years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the nor- 
mal entrance age to the fifth grade, are all above 70 per cent. 
In the eighth, sixth, and fifth grades New York City again in- 
dicates the tendency. In Paterson the deviations from the me- 
dians are by far the greatest. 

Allowing one year on tlie assumed theoretical age-limit, these 
percentages reduce considerably. The medians now become : 
Eighth grade, 36.9; seventh grade, 39.1; sixth grade, 40.8; 
fifth grade, 45.1. That is, 36.9 per cent of the present eighth 
grade pupils were more than 14 years 11 months when they en- 
tered the eighth grade; 39.1 per cent were more than 13 years 

11 months when they entered the seventh grade; 40.8 per cent 
were more than 12 years 11 months when they entered the 
sixth grade; and 45.1 per cent were more than 11 years 11 
months when they entered the fifth grade. The progressive 
decrease from the fifth grade to the eighth grade inclusive in- 
dicates clearly the efifect of increasing elimination. 



96 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Comparing the grammar grade girls and boys in the matter 
of retardation, Table 50 and the accompanying charts show the 
age-grade relations by city and grades. 



TABLE 50 
Retardation in Per Cents in Grammar Grades. Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


8B 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


5B 


5A 


Cities 




















67.5 


75-0 


80.9 


75-0 


84.6 


72.9 


5<?.o 


63.2 


New York 


65.1 


78.0 


87.8 1 76.7 


86.3 


62 


•7 


80.0 


83 


.1 




70.3 




77.8 




78.5 




75-9 






71.4 




82.6 




74-3. 




81.3 






51.4 24.6 


50-5 39-1 


56.2 32.8 


64.9 


29.9 


Pater son 


44.1 40.2 


52.3 40.4 


59-8 54.8 


01.3 


41. 1 






3^-5 


45-1 


46.2 




47-4 1 






41.8 1 


4S-I 


57 


5 




49 


3 1 


Elizabeth 


57.8 


66.7 


76 


.? 


79 


■ Q 




65.2 


78.4 


79 


.6 


89 


•7 


Pla infield 


76.6 


61 .7 


81 


•7 


^7 


•J 




81 .6 


72.1 


69 


.8 


77 


-^ J 


East Orange 


77-4 


77-3 


79 


■3 


76 


9 \ 




76.9 


83-3 


78 


.6 


88 


•5 


Medians 


70.3 


66.7 


78 


5 


75 


•P 






71 


• 4 




78 


• 4 




74 


•3 




81 


.3 





P&r'oQynis 
90 



f^rc^n-L^ 



To 
60 
50 
4o 
30 
20 



Cradas 8 



'5 Qrads-s 8 



TO 






1 


60 

50 
40 
30 
20 
lO 







Chart 21 a. Median per- Chart 21 b. Median per- 
centages of retarded boys centages of retarded girls 



Summary 



97 



Reading from Table 50 it appears that the boys are retarded 
more often than the girls. The median percentage of retarded 
girls in the sixth grade, 78.5 per cent, is larger than that recorded 
in the case of the boys. In two out of the five cities, however, 
there are larger proportions of "over-age" boys in this grade 
also. The medians in the sex classification table are the same 
in hundredths as those of New York City, excepting for grade 
seven, wherein Elizabeth registers the middle tendency. 

The summary table showing the distribution of "over-ageness" 
at the time of entrance to the first grade follows. Six years 
to 6 years 11 months is the assumed normal entrance age in 
Table 51 and Charts 22 and 23. 

TABLE 51 

" Over-Ageness " IN Per Cents at Time of Entrance to 
First Grade 



Grades 


SB 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


5B 


5 A 


Average 


Cities 
New York 


48.2 
1 47 


46.2 

•3 1 


59-4 
1 56 


53-7 

•5 1 


46.4 

1 43 


40-7 

•5 1 


47.6 

1 52 


57-9 

•5 1 


49-8 


Paterson 


24.0 1 18.4 
1 21.0 1 


19.8 1 30.6 
25.6 1 


23.9 18.6 

1 21.5 ! 


27.3 1 19.8 


23.0 


1 23.2 1 




Elizabeth 


56.2 


55-8 


68.3 


74.5 


66.5 


Plainfield 


29.4 


23-4 


32 -5 


42 .6 


32.0 


East Orange 


38.1 


37-8 


40 .3 


50-5 


41.9 


Medians 


38.1 


37-8 


40.3 


50-5 


41.9 



Tercent tO2O3O4O50i01O%0 W203040SOi070 f0 203040S060 iO 2030'fOSOtO 



&^^iZ]lZII!I53i5ZI!I 



'V,iWH' 




jixtk' 






E.Ordn^e 
Eluibethl 
NeuiYorK 
rate rson 
Ffainjielii 



Chart 22. Percentages of " over-ageness " at time of en- 
trance to the first grade: assuming 6 3'cars to 6 years 11 
months inckisive as the normal entrance age 



98 



A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



Terce-KtZ^ 6 i 10 



20 



30 



40 



50 



60 



10 



L.OriTtse 
Eliza.heth 
NeuVoTH 
fdtersoK 
P/dmjield 




Chart 23. Average percentages of " over-ageness " at time of entrance 

to first grade 

The East Orange system indicates the median tendency in 
the matter of initial "over-ageness." Of the eighth grade pupils 
38.1 per cent were above 6 years 11 months at school entrance; 
seventh grade, 37.8 per cent ; sixth grade, 40.3 per cent ; fifth 
grade, 50.5 per cent. Taking the median of the averages of all 
grades," one finds that 41.9 per cent of the children now in the 
grammar grades were "over-age" at the time of entrance to 
the first grade. Whereas in each of the grammar grades over 
70 per cent are at present retarded (see Table 49), the per- 
centage of pupils who were above the normal age assumed, 
when they were admitted to the first grade, is approximately 
40 per cent. 

The "over-age" pupils based on the initial age records of 
the 1,933 boys and the 1,932 girls are distributed in the next 
table. The median percentages of "over-age" boys and girls 
may be compared in the appended graphic illustrations. 

Although the median of the averages for the five cities would 
indicate that more boys as compared with girls were above 6 
years 11 months when they began school, in grades seven and 
six the reverse is the tendency. That boys are more variable in 
the matter of "over-ageness" at the time of entrance to the first 
grade is apparent in Charts 24 a and 24 b. It is necessary, 
however, to constantly keep in mind the fact that all the con- 
clusions in this summary refer to that select class of children 
who entered the first grade, have remained through the primary 
grades, and are now in the grammar department of the school 
in which they were originally admitted. 

1 These averages are reckoned as follows: e.g., In the case of New 
York City the quotient obtained by dividing the sum of the numbers 
of the initial "over-age" pupils in all the grammar grades by the sum 
of the total number of cases studied is changed to per cent. 



Summary 



99 



TABLE 52 

Over-Ageness " IN Per Cents at Time of Entrance to 
First Grade. Sex Distribution 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 



Grades 


SB 


8A 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


sB 


5A 


Average 


Cities 
New York 


40.0 
55-S 


45-8 
46.3 


59-6 
59-2 


44.2 
65.1 


41-5 
50-7 


40 
41 



3 


49-4 


55-2 
61.5 


46.8 




42.2 

51-2 


1 i-r.5 
1 62.0 




40.7 
45-7 




1 50-6 
1 54-7 1 


52.7 


Pater son 


21.4 18.5 

27.1 18.3 

1 20.0 1 

1 22.0 1 


21.6] 28.7 
16.9 1 32.3 


29.2 
18.4 


20 
16 


■9 
• 4 


26.0 
29. 


19.3 
20.0 


2 J- 5 






23.0 
26.2 




23.6 
17-5 






22.7 1 
23-7 i 


22.4 


Elizabeth 


37-5 
74.2 


32.4 
59-1 


72.8. 


82.5 


5P 

73 


5 
9 


Plainfield 


31 ■ 9 
26.3 


21 .7 
25.0 


32 .6 


.5 J ■ / 
34.8 


33 
30 


P 

2 


East Orange 


35.8 
40 .4 


^8.6 
36.7 


32 .1 


43-6 . 
55-8 


40 
43 


6 
2 


Medians 


35.8 
40.4 


-,8.6 

36-7 


40.7 
32.6 


30 . 6 

54-7 


40 
43 


6 
2 



^a-rc/o^ is 
55 

50 

45 

40 

55 
30 
25 
20 
,15 
10 
5 



GraJe 



'.^r'Pd^-5 S 



Chart 24 a. Boys 



Chart 24 b. Girls 



Median percentages of initial " over-ageness " 

The Incidence of Retardation 
The relative frequency of regularly promoted and non-pro- 
moted eighth grade pupils is summarized in Table 53. The 



loo A Special SUidy of the Incidence of Retardation 

accompanying charts illustrate the median percentages of regu- 
larly promoted pupils and of those left back one, two, three, 
four, and five times. 

TABLE 53 

Percentages of Eighth Grade Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating 
During School Life 



Cities 


None 


One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


Five 


8B 


8A 


SB 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


New York 


43 


26 


24 


3 5 


25 


26 


2 


1 1 


4 


2 


I 







1 36 i 


1 29 1 


1 26 1 


1 6 i 


1 3 1 


! I 1 


Paterson 


47 1 44 
i 45 ! 


28 1 31 

1 30 1 


23 1 17 
1 20 1 


2 1 6 
1 4 1 


1 I 


1 




1 I 1 


1 1 


Elizabeth 


71 


22 


5 


I 


I 





Plainfield 


9 


48 


32 


10 








East Orange 


63 


29 


9 











Medians 


45 


29 


20 


4 


I 






Percent Z4-(>H0 ZO 2Q ^ SO (>0 /IP 




Chart 25. Percentages of eighth grade pupils never left back during 

entire school life 



Tefceict 4 i ilf^'^o 30 ^ SO '^ ^ IZI(,ZO 30 40 ^ S U/620 4S 4 



I M M M M Ul ' ' ' I M M M M I | M ' I ' I M ■;.l ■.! M M ■ I 
Owe 



^ 



LeftSicKl 




riu-t- TVVe' 



C.Ora 7»ge 
Elizabeth 
HtutiorK 
Faterson 

Tkmjieli 




I • t- 1. 1 ■ '■'■'•'•' 1 I . I ■ 1. 1 . 1 ■ I 1 .1.1 1 1,1,1 



Chart 26. Percentages of eighth grade pupils repeating during entire 

school life 



Summary 



lOI 



Of the eighth grade pupils who entered the first grade of the 
school in which they now attend, 45 per cent as a median have 
never been left back during their entire school life ; 29 per 
cent have repeated once ; 20 per cent, twice ; 4 per cent, three 
times ; and i per cent, four times. It is justifiable to say that 
of those selected pupils who reach the highest grade, the tend- 
ency is to be left back once during their school life. In Eliza- 
beth and East Orange the mode falls in the "no-time" group. 
Eliminating Plainfield, these cities deviate most from the me- 
dian percentage of regularly promoted children. 

Distributing the eighth grade pupils according to sex, Table 
54 shows the relative frecjuencies as percentages of eighth grade 
boys and girls promoted and non-promoted throughout the 
grades. The median percentages are stated in the bottom row. 

T.A.BLE 54 

Eighth Grade Pupils Repeating and Non-Repeating During 
School Life. Sex Distribution in Per Cents 

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics. 





None 






One 




Two 






Three 




Fo 


ur 






Five 




Cities 
















8B 8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


8B 


8A 


New York 


37-5 
48.8 


2Q.2 
24.4 


■^0.0 
18.6 


SO.O 

26.8 


27-5 
23-3 


16. y 

31-7 


2-5 
2-3 


4.2 
14.6 


2.5 
4-7 


0.0 
2.4 


0.0 
2.3 


0.0 
0.0 


34-4 
36.9 






37-5 
22.6 




\23-4 

|27-4 




3-1 

8.3 




1.6 
3-6 






0.0 
1.2 






52-9 


46.2 


31 -4] 33-8 


15-7 


18.5 


0.0 J. 5 


0.0 0.0 


0.0 1 0.0 


Pa terson 


39-0 


42.7 


23-7129.3 
\32-6\ 


32.2 


i.q.9 


5.1 9.8 


0.0 2.4 
0.0 





.0 1 





1 49-6 \ 


ly.o 






0.7 




0.0 




1 41. 1 1 


I27.0 1 


22.7 






7.8 


1-4 




0.0 1 


Elizabeth 


73-4 


21. Q 


31 


0.0 


1.6 


0.0 




68.2 


22.7 


7.6 


1-5 


0.0 


0.0 


Plainfield 


10.6 


44-7 


319 


12.8 


0.0 


0.0 




7-9 


52.6 


31.6 


7-9 


0.0 


0.0 


East Orange 


58.5 


340 


7-5 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 




67-3 


23-1 


9.6 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


Medians 


4<, 
41 


h6 
•4 






3-1 


1.0 

■7 




22 


•7 








7 


•7 
.8 








.0 
.0 










.0 
.0 





102 A special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



P<5^rc^ 


e'/7 /s. 










r^rc^c^n L s . 










T5 










15 
45 










7o 






(=5 








Lo 










to 

55 










55 




5o 










50 
45 
4o 










45 




40 
















1 


---- — .i., 












55 








3o 




' 1 








30 












15 
20 












20 












15 












)5 
]0 
5 












)0 




5 




Oih<^ 


J ///:' 


Fai 


E/,x 


P/a.:-7 


E 0. 


<w iVe^ 


J MY 


P^^ 


^Z/^. 


P/o/n 


£,0.. 



Chart 27 a. Eighth grade Chart 27 b. Eighth grade 

boys never left back during entire girls never left back during entire 

school life. Eighth grade school life. Eighth grade 

boys left back once girls left back once 



So 
7.5 
•Zo 



a, 



I 

\ j 

I J I 



P^r-c^eyr?ls 
ho 



7.5 

Zo 

15 
10 
5 



/I/ Y. PaL Eh. 



P/a. 



I J 1 



£.0. 



C,i^^ //Y Pai El/. 



p/a. 



EO. 



Chart 28 a. Eighth grade boys Chart 28 b. Eighth grade girls 

left back two and three or more left back two and three or more 

times during school life times during school life 

Two times. Three or Two times. Three or 

more times more times 



In the case of regular promotion and "one-time" repetition 
the girls record larger percentages, whereas the boys are more 
frequently left back two and three times. In New York City 
and East Orange the girls maintain the average position in the 
distribution curve of mental ability, such ability being measured 
solely on the basis of relative frequency in the grades. The 



Siunuiary 103 

boys on the other hand in these cities occupy the extremes of 
the distribution. Larger percentages of tiiem have advanced 
regularly and at the same time more of them have repeated 
two, three, and more times. In Paterson and Elizabeth the girls 
unquestionably are brighter than the boys. In the former city the 
mode in the case of the eighth grade girls is in the " no-time " 
group while the selected boys tend to be left back once during 
school life. In Plainfield the boys who finally reach the eighth 
grade must be credited with the better records. From the medians 
as read in the bottom row of Table 54, one notes the larger 
range in relative ability on the part of the boys. The Paterson 
system records the median tendency of the five cities. 

The fact that the girls who reach the eighth grade in general 
have been more successful throughout the entire school course 
in the matter of regular promotion and relative frequency of 
repetition does not of necessity reflect discredit on the boys. 
It may sanction the charge that the modern course of study 
is not sufficiently adapted to the special needs and inherent 
capacities of the latter. 

The grade distributions of non-promotion as percentages of 
the total number promoted and non-promoted in the various 
school systems are shown in Tables 55, 56, 57, 58, and Charts 
29 through 32. 

Reading from Table 55, the bottom row^ of percentages record 
with considerable accuracy the prevailing tendencies in the five 
city school systems. Four and four tenths per cent of the eighth 
grade pupils who remain through all the grades of the school 
they originally entered are left back in the eighth grade; 9.5 
per cent, in the seventh grade ; 7 per cent, in the sixth ; 4.6 per 
cent, in the fifth ; 4.3 per cent, in the fourth ; 3.9 per cent, in 
the third ; 2.4 per cent, in the second ; and 3.5 per cent, in the 
first. It is evident that the seventh grade marks the chief ob- 
stacle in the progress of the pupil who persists in school. The 
increasing difficulty of the grades from the first till the eighth 
is clearly manifest. This holds true of the two systems with 
half-yearly terms as well as in the case of those cities having 
the yearly series of grades. In New York City the 6 B and 
7 A grades show the highest percentages of retention. In Pater- 
son evidently the upper seventh is the most difficult. 



104 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 



TABLE 55 

Grade Distribution Indicating Relative Frequency of Non- 
Promotion IN Hundredths 

Eighth Grade Pupils Only 



Grades 


8B 

S.8 
1 5 


8A 

5-0 

3 1 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


sB 

5P 

l5 


5A 

5-0 

5 1 


4B 

4-1 
|4 


4A 

4-1 

I 1 


3B 

3.6 
l3 


3A 

4.1 

9 1 


2B 

0.0 
|i 


2A 

2-3 

6 1 


iB 

0.9 

1 2 


lA 


Cities 
New York 


7-7 

1 g 


"•3 

5 1 


1 1-3 

1 8 


5-0 

2 1 


1-4 
3 1 


Paterson 


5.6l 4.2 


Q.I 1 6.6 


4-2 I 5-8 
1 5.0 1 


3.6I5.5 
I4.6 1 


5-o|3-6 
I4.3 1 


2.2I3.9 
I3.0 1 


I-7I3-0 
I2.4 1 


2.8I2.S 


1 7-9 1 


I2.6I 


Elizabeth 


5.6 


0.2 


2.1 


2.1 


4.2 


4.9 


3-5 


3-5 


Plainfield 


3-1 


20.0 


10.8 


10. 


5-4 


6.2 


7-7 


30.8 


East Orange 


4-4 


140 


7.0 


4-4 


4-4 


2.6 


0.9 


3-5 


Medians 


4-4 


9-S 


7.0 


4.6 


4-3 


3 


9 


2.4 


3-S 



)l 
[o 
<A 

8 

5 
4 
3 

^ 

1 

Grades 8 7 (^ 5 4 5 2 1 

Chart 29. Median percentages of eighth grade pupils showing the inci- 
dence of retardation 






Summary 



105 



TABLE 56 

Grade Distribution Indicating Relative Frequency of Non- 
Promotion IN Hundredths 

Seventh Grade Pupils Only 



Grades 


7B 


7A 


6B 


6A 


5B 


5A 


4B 


4A 


3B 


3A 


2B 


2 A 


iB 


lA 


Cities 


13-8 


II-5 


7-1 


9.2 


6.1 


8.5 


5-4 


6.1 


3-7 


4.1 


1.4 


2.7 


1-7 


2.7 


New York 


1 ^2.2 1 


1 8.1 1 


1 7-3 1 


1 5-8 1 


1 3-9 1 


1 2.0 1 


1 2.2 1 


Paterson 


8.i|8.o 


5-6I4-9 

1 5-3 1 


6..s|6.o 
1 6.3 1 


5-4| 4-2 
1 4-8 1 


4.2I3.6 

1 3-9 1 


3-i|2-7 
1 2.9 1 


3-3|2.2 


1 8.1 1 


1 2.8 j 


Elizabeth 


12.4 


4-7 


41 


2.6 


4-1 


5-7 


7.8 


Pla infield 


14.0 


18.4 


7.2 


6.8 


5-3 


6.3 


30.0 


East Orange. 


II. 4 


7.6 


8.9 


6.3 


2-5 


3-8 


5-1 


Medians 


12.2 


7.6 


7.2 


5-8 


3-9 


3-8 


5-1 






IZ 



Ctac/e^5 1 



Chart 30. Median percentages of seventh grade pupils showing 
the incidence of retardation 



io6 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

TABLE 57 

Grade Distribution Indicating Relative Frequency of Non- 
Promotion IN Hundredths 

Sixth Grade Pupils Only 



Grades 


6B 


6A 


5B 


5A 


4B 


4A 


3B 


3A 


2B 


2A 


iB 


lA 


Cities 
New York 


I0.6 


10. 1 


II. 2 


9.9 


7-4 


7-9 


8.3 


6.1 


4.8 


5.0 


2.0 


3-3 


1 ^°-2 j 


i IO-5 i 


1 7-7 i 


7.2 1 


1 4-9 i 


1 2.6 1 


Paterson 


10.2I10.3 
1 IO-3 i 


7.0 1 6.0 
1 6.5 i 


5-5 1 4-1 
1 4-8 ! 


6.7 1 5.8 
1 6.2 1 


2.6 1 3.8 

1 3-2 1 


3-4 1 3-6 

1 3-5 ! 


Elizabeth 


12.3 


10.2 


9.8 


5-3 


3-7 


4-1 


Pla infield 


16. 1 


10.4 


8.7 


6.5 


7.0 


32.2 


East Orange 


13.8 


7-7 


4.6 


6.2 


6.2 


7-7 


Medians 


12.3 


10.2 


7-7 


6.2 


4-9 


4.1 



13 



1-2 
11 
)0 
<\ 

5 

4 

5 

1 



Cracfe 



4 



Chart 31. Median percentage of sixth grade pupils 
showing the incidence of retardation 



Summary 



107 



TABLE 58 

Grade Distribution Indicating Relative Frequency of Non- 
Promotion IN Hundredths 

Fifth Grade Pupils Only 



Grades 


5B 


5A 


4B 


4A 


3B 


3A 


2B 


2A 


iB 


I A 


Cities 
New York 


12.4 


IO-5 


8..^ 


9.9 


9.1 


10. 1 


8.0 


5-2 


3-7 


6.4 


1 II-2 i 


1 9-2 1 


1 9-6 1 


1 6.6 1 


! 5-0 1 


Paterscn 


5.9 1 10.9 

1 9-4 1 


7-4 1 4-4 
i 5-9 ! 


7-4 ! '^•7 
1 6.5 1 


6.4 1 4.0 

1 5.2 1 


4-7 1 .=^-0 
1 4.8 1 


Elizabeth 


19.0 


12. 1 


10. 1 


8.1 


7.2 


Plain field 


15.2 


^^■3 


6.3 


5-7 


39-2 


East Orange 


10.2 


7.2 


7.2 


10.2 


8.2 


Medians 


I 1.2 


9.2 


7.2 


6.6 


7.2 



15 
17. 
11 
\o 

5 
4 
3 
2 
I 



A 



T. 



Chart 32. Median percentages of fifth grade 
pupils showing the incidence of retardation 



io8 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

That the pupils find the lower much easier than the upper 
grades is the definite tendency as shown in the foregoing tables. 
Table 55 indicates the seventh grade with a median of 9.5 per 
cent as having been the most difficult grade for the present 
eighth grade pupils. Table 56 indicates the seventh grade again 
with a median of 12.2 per cent as the most difficult grade for 
the present seventh grade pupils. In Table 57 the sixth grade 
pupils show the largest percentages of non-promotion in their 
present grade. The progress of the fifth grade pupils according 
to Table 58 is impeded more in the fifth grade than in any of 
the preceding grades. In grades five, six, and especially seven, 
the chances of retardation in the case of any given pupil are 
decidedly more than in any of the other grades. The pupil who 
is fortunate enough to withstand the strain of the difficult sev- 
enth grade is practically offered the assurance of success on 
entrance to the comparatively easy graduating class. 

Taken generally the grammar grades exert much more pres- 
sure on the pupils in the matter of retardation. It is more than 
probable that, were all the "hold-overs" in grades one through 
four to remain in school, the percentages of retardation in the 
upper grades would be still larger. 

Tables 55 to 58 record the distribution of non-promotion in 
hundredths of the grammar grade initial starters. These pupils 
represent a selected class as compared with the children migrat- 
ing from school to school. It is fair to suppose that, were the 
histories of these shifting pupils studied, the same progressive 
increase in grade frequency would be the characteristic tendency. 

The records of the initial starters were obtained from the in- 
dividual pupils in class room and were checked by a care- 
ful study of the individual history cards. These cards registered 
accurately the frequency of grammar grade retention. In the 
case of non-promotion in the primary grades, where the official 
records were not obtainable, errors of memory would necessitate 
some correction of the recorded percentages. Even with a gen- 
erous corrective allowance there is every reason to believe that 
the classes would still be progressively harder from the first to 
the last year of the school. At any rate the burden of proof 
rests upon those who fancy that a pupil is more likely to suffer 
retardation in early than in late grades. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Books 

Ayres LP* Laggards in Our Schools; a Study of Retardation and 
Elimination in City Systems. New York: Russell Sage Founda- 
tion Publications, 1909. 

BoNSER F G The Reasoning Ahilitv of Children of the Fourth, Fifth, 
and Sixth School Grades. New York: Teachers College, Columbia 
University, 1910. 

CoRNMAN, O. P.* Promotion and Retardation in the Elementary 
Schools. Philadelphia: 1906. 

Button S T. and Snedden, D. S.* Administration of Public Educa- 
tion in the United States. New York: Macmillan Company, 1908. 

GuLicK, L. H. and Ayres, L. P.* Medical Inspection of Schools. New 
York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications, 1908. 

Maennel, B. Auxiliary Education; The Training of Backward Children. 
Trans, by Emma Sylvester. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
1909. 

Snedden, D. S. and Allen, W. H.* School Reports and School Effi- 
ciency. New York: Macmillan Company, 1908. 

Thorndike, E. L.* Educational Psychology. New York: Teachers 
College', Columbia University, 19 10. 

* Theory of Mental and Social Measurements. New York, 

Science Press, 1904. 

The following reports were examined in order to check the 
statistical conclusions of some of the investigations referred to 
in this study. 

General Reports 

Report of the Commissioner of Education. Vol. 2, 1907:577. Sta- 
tistics of City School Systems. 

Vol. 2, 1908:1057. Sum.m.ary of Statistical Tables. 

— . Vol. 2, 1909:1343. Retardation and Acceleration of Pupils in 



City Schools. 
Department of Interior. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 4, 

1907. The Elimination of Pupils from School. E. L. Thorndike. 

. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 5, 1911. G. D. Strayer. 

Report of Commissioner of Education of New York State. 1908: 

610; 1910:3 2. 
Report of Committee on Delinquent and Dependent Children. 

State Association of Town and City Superintendents. 1908:3-25. 

* Special reference is made to this study. 

109 



no A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation 

City Reports 

Baltimore, Md. Annual Report of Board of School Commissioners. 

1908:51, 119. 
Boston, Mass. Report of School Committee. June, 1909:20; July, 

1909 :22. 
Brooklyn, N. Y. Tenth Annual Report of New York City Superin- 
tendent. 1908:68. 
Chicago, 111. Report of Board of Education. 1899:123. 
Cincinnati, O. Annual Report of the Public Schools. 1909:55. 
Columbus, O. Report of Public Schools. 1902:200. 
East Orange, N. J. Annual School Report. 1905:19; 1907:56. 
Kansas City, Mo. Annual Report of Board of Education. 1907:88. 
Louisville, Ky. Report of School Board. 1907:127. 
Medford, Mass. Annual Report of School Committee. 1907:17. 

1908:17. 
New Haven, Conn. Report of Board of Education. 1908:28. 
New York City, N. Y. Sixth Annual Report of City Superintendent 

of Schools. 1904:42-49. Twelfth Annual Report. 1910:225. 
Paterson, N. J. Annual Report of Public Schools. 1908:159; 1909:110. 
Philadelphia, Pa. Report of Board of Public Education. 1907:24 

(Statements J and Iv); 1908:92 (Tables 16-37). 
Plainfield, N. J. Report of Board of Education. 1908:47; 1909:37 
Reading, Pa. Biennial Report of Board of Education. 1907:95. 
Rochester, N. Y. Annual Report of the Public Schools. 1897:7, 30. 
San Francisco, Cal. Annual Report of the Public Schools. 1892:7. 
Springfield, O. Annual Report of Pviblic Schools. 1908:31, 53. 
Trenton, N. J. Annual Report of Commissioners of Public Instruction. 

1897 :204. 
Wheeling, W. Va. Annual Report of Public Schools. 1907:19. 

Articles from Periodicals 

Educational Revieiv* 1909:122. Retardation, its Significance and its 

Requirements. R. P. Falkner. 
.* 1909:342. Retardation of Pupils in their Studies. J. M. 

Greenwood. 

.* 1910:48. Elimination and Repetition. F. P. Bachman. 

-. 1910:121. A Neglected Cause of Retardation. W.D.Sheldon. 



Elementary School Teacher. 1910:326. England and her Retarded Chil- 
dren. H. Leather. 

.* 1910:409. Repeaters in the Upper Grammar Grades. E. L. 

Thorndike. 

Journal of Educational Psychology. 1910:61.* Individual Differences 
in Grammar Grade Children. W. G. Chambers. 

. 1910:132. The Subnormal Child in New York Gty Schools. 

M. S. Macy. 

1910:435. The Binet Scale for Measuring Intelligence and 



Retardation. E. B. Huey. 
— . 1911:3. Measuring Results in Education. G. D. Strayer. 



^Special reference is made to this study. 



Bibliography 1 1 1 

N. E. A. Proceedings* 1902 :2i5. The Danger of Using Biological Anal- 
ogies in Reasoning on Educational Subjects. W. T. Harris. 

. 1908:155. Democracy and Education; Equal Opportunity for 

All. J. E. Russell. Discussion: 159. E. C. Elliott. 

1908:348. Provision for Exceptional Children. J. H. Van 



Sickle. 



. 1910:980. The Standardization of School Statistics. H. 

R. M. Cook. 
Psychological Clinic* Vol. I, No. 2. April 1907:41. A Method for 

Detennining the Extent and Causes of Retardation in a City School 

System. J. E. Bryan. 

. Vol. I, No. 4. June, 1907:97. Clinical Studies of Retarded 

Children. G. W. Twitmeyer. 

.* Vol. I, No. 8. Jan. 1908:245. The Retardation of the Pupils 

of Five City School Systems. O. P. Cornman. 
.* Vol. II, No. 3. May 1908:57. Sorhe Further Considerations 

upon the Retardation of the Pupils of Five Citv School Systems. 

R. P. Falkner. 
• . Vol. II, No. 8. Jan. 1909:227. Some Uses of Statistics in the 

Supervision of Schools. R. P. Falkner. 

. Vol. Ill, No. 2. April 1909:29. Orthogenics in the Public 

Schools. L. Wither. 

. Vol. Ill, No. 6. Nov. 1909:164. Retardation and Elimina- 
tion in the Schools of Mauch Chunk TowTiship. A. E. Wagner. 

Vol. Ill, No. 7. Dec. 1909:266. Size of Classes and School 



Progress. O. P. Cornman. 

.* Vol. Ill, No. 8. Jan. 1910:232; No. 9, Feb. 1910:255. Pro- 
motion, Retardation and Elimination. E. L. Thorndike. 

. Vol. IV, No. I. Mar. 1910:1. What can and do School Reports 

show? R. P. Falkner. 

. Vol. IV, No. 2. April 1910:46. Our Responsibility for Retar- 
dation. C. R. Squire. 

- — . Vol. IV, No. 2. April 1910:40; No. 3, May 1910:79. Ret?r- 
dation and Elimination in Graded and Rural Schools. G. W. 
Gayler. 

. Vol. IV, No. 4. June 1910:93. Medical and Dental Inspec- 
tion in the Cleveland Schools. J. E. Wallin. 

.* Vol. IV, No. 5. Oct. 1910:121. What is meant by Retarda- 
tion? L. Wither. 

. Vol. IV, No. 8. Jan. 1911:213. The Fundamental Expression 

of Retardation. R. P. Falkner. 

Vol. IV, No. 8. Jan. 191 1 :239. Age per Grade of Truant and 



Difficult School Boys. W. S. Cornell. 

Vol. V. No. I. Mar. 1911:13. Retardation Statistics from, the 



Smaller Minnesota Towns. F. E. Lurton. 
*Special reference is made to this study. 



m to 1911 



lii-.' 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



lUff 12 19«' 



